Types & Development of Play
兒童遊戲專題
許錦雲
10/12/2007
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Types of Play
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Social play
Cognitive play
Social-Cognitive play
Informal (free) play
Motor play
Rough-and-Tumble play
Bad play
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Social play
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Parten
Erikson
Howes & Matheson
Cognitive play
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Piaget
Smilansky
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Parten’s Types of Social Play (1932)
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Unoccupied play
Solitary play
Onlooker play
Parallel play
Associative play
Cooperative play
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Solitary play
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plays alone and independently
different activity
no reference to others
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Parallel play
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plays independently but near or among
others
similar toys or activities
beside but not with
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Associative play
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plays with others
conversation is about common activity,
but does not subordinate own interests
to groups
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Cooperative play
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activity is organized
differentiation of roles
complementing actions
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Erikson’s social play (1950)
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Autocosmic play
Microcosmic play
Macrocosmic play
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Autocosmic play—world of self;
explores own body and the body of
mother; repetition of activity
Microcosmic play—world of small,
manageable toys and objects; solitary
play; pleasure derived from mastery of
toys; Macrocosmic play
World shared with others
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Howes & Matheson (1992)
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Parallel play
Parallel aware play
Simple social play
Complementary and reciprocal play
Cooperative social play
Complex social play
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Parallel play—in proximity and in similar
activities but without notice or
awareness of each other
Parallel aware play—in proximity and in
similar activities with eye contact and
mutual awareness
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Simple social play—engaged in similar
activities with eye contact and presence
of social bids—talking, giving, holding,
etc.
Complementary and reciprocal play—
presence of social bids plus “actionbased role reversals”, e.g., hide-andseek, run-and-chase
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Cooperative social play—enactment of
organized constructive or sociodramatic
play with complementary roles and
communication
Complex social play—engagement in
organized constructive or dramatic play
with play communication and
communication about the play or
metacommunication
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Play
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Functional Play
Symbolic Play
Playing Games with Rules
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Constructive view of cognition
1. Sensorimotor Stage (b-2)
2. Concrete Operations Stage (2/3-11/12)
a. preoperational substage (2-4)
b. intuitive substage (4/5-7/8)
c. concrete operational substage (7/8-11/12)
3. Formal Operations Stage (11/12-16+)
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Constructive view of play
1. Practice Play Stage (b-2)
2. Symbolic Play Stage (2/3-11/12)
a. substage 1 (2-4)
b. substage 2 (4/5-7/8)
c. substage 3 (7/8-11/12)
3. Games With Rules Stage (11/12-16+)
--Constructional and Creative Transitional
Play Phase
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Smilansky
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Functional Play
Constructive play
Symbolic/Dramatic Play
Playing Games with Rules
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Functional Play
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occurs during the sensorimotor period
in response to the need to be active
characterized by repetitions,
manipulations, and self-imitation
includes practice play and exercise play
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Constructive Play
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develops from symbolic play
represents adaptations to problems
includes experimentation with the ways
things go together
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Symbolic Play
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referred to as the “play like” or pretend
play stage
includes assuming the role of someone
else
includes pretending that objects
represent something else
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Playing Games with Rules
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begins around age seven or eight
follows rules and limits of play
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Stages in the development of
symbolic play
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Prepretense
Pretend self
Pretend other
Substitution
Imaginary objects or beings
Active agent
Sequence, no story
Sequence story
Planning
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Prepretense : child engages in a
approximate pretense but gives no
confirming evidence or pretense
Pretend self : child engages in pretense
behavior, directed toward self, in which
pretense is apparent
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Pretend other : child engages in pretense
behavior directed away from child toward
other; pretends the behaviors of other
people
Substitution : child uses an apparently
meaningless object in a creative or
imaginative manner, or uses an object in a
pretense act in a way that differs from its
usual use
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Imaginary objects: child pretends that
an object, substance, person, or animal
or beings is present
Active agent:child animates a toy (e.g.,
doll, toy animal) that represents a being
so that toy becomes an active agent in
the pretend activity
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Sequence, no story : child repeats a single
pretense act/scheme with multiple
receivers
Sequence story: child uses more than one
related scheme in pretense activity
Planning: child engages in pretend play
preceded by evidence of planning
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Social-Cognitive play
(Rubin, Watson, Jambor, 1978)
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Social play—solitary, parallel, group
Cognitive play—functional, constructive,
dramatic, games
3x4
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Nonsocial play behaviors
(from Loyd & Howe, 2003)
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Solitary-passive
Solitary-active
Reticent
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Solitary-passive behavior
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consists of construction play and
exploratory activity
is more object-oriented than people
oriented
children might not be less socially
skilled or emotionally regulated but
choose to remove themselves from their
peers and focus on objects
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Solitary-active behavior
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consists of dramatic and functional play
were associated with immaturity,
impulsivity, peer rejection, and
externalizing behaviors
children may want to play with others
but have been isolated by their peers
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Reticent behavior
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consists of onlooker and unoccupied
behaviors
lack of engagement with physical and
social environment
Children want to play with others but
feel fearful and anxious
may reflect nonoptimal patterns of peer
relations
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