Chapter 14
Aggression, Altruism, and Moral Development
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Aggression
– Any form of behavior intended to injure or
harm a living being who is motivated to
avoid such treatment
• Hostile aggression – goal is to harm a
victim
• Instrumental aggression – harming
another is a means to some other end
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Origins of Aggression in Infancy
– Instrumental aggression present by end of
1st year
• Conflicts over possessions
• Declines in second year as sharing
becomes more common
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Developmental Trends in Aggression
– 2 to 3 years, physical retaliation begins
– 3 to 5, physical aggression declines, but is
replaced by verbal aggression
– For most children, physical aggression is
normal, but relatively rare by middle
childhood
• Decline is in instrumental aggression
• Hostile aggression increases slightly
•
Figure 14.1 Draft 2 Trajectories of mother-rated aggression for children from age 2 to age 9 years.
ADAPTED FROM NICHD EARLY CHILD CARE RESEARCH NETWORK, 2004.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Sex Differences
• By 2 ½ - 3, males more physically and
verbally aggressive than females
–Due to rougher play with parents
–More negative parental reaction to
aggressive behaviors of daughters
–Gender-typing of toys
• Females are more relationally
aggressive (covert aggression)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– From Aggression to Antisocial Conduct
• Overt aggression declines from middle
childhood through adolescence
• Relational aggression in girls, and
indirect aggression in males increases
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Is Aggression a Stable Attribute?
• Yes for many individuals
–Aggressive toddlers likely to be
aggressive 5 year olds
–Aggression between 3 and 10
predicts aggression and antisocial
behavior later in life
•
Figure 14.2. Aggression in childhood predicts criminal behavior in adulthood for both males and
females. FROM HUESMANN, ERON, LEFKOWITZ, & WALDER, 1984.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Individual Differences in Aggressive Behavior
– Few individuals are highly aggressive
– 10-15% of classmates are abused by
bullies
– Proactive aggressors – aggression will
produce tangible benefits; enhances selfesteem
– Reactive aggressors – hostile, retaliatory
aggression; wary of others
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Dodge’s Social Information-Processing
Theory of Aggression
• Encoding social cues
• Interpretation of social cues
• Formulates a goal to resolve situation
• Generates possible strategies
• Evaluates strategies for achieving goal
• Selects response
• Enacts response
•
Figure 14.3 Dodge’s social information-processing model of the steps children take when deciding
how to respond to harmdoing or other social problems. The boy whose creation is destroyed by
another boy’s nudging the table must first encode and interpret the social cues (i.e., did he mean it
or was it accidental?) and then proceed through the remaining steps to formulate a response to
this harmdoing. ADAPTED FROM CRICK & DODGE, 1994; LEMERISE & ARSENIO, 2000.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Reactive aggressors are likely to
develop a hostile attribution bias
–Attribute ambiguous situations as
serious and react aggressively
• Proactive aggressors – plan an
aggressive response to achieve an
instrumental goal
–Expect positive outcomes
–Feel capable of dominating others
•
Figure 14.4 A social-cognitive model of the reactive aggressor’s biased attributions about
ambiguous harmdoing and their behavioral outcomes. FROM ROBERT S. SIEGLER, 1996.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Perpetrators and Victims of Peer
Aggression
• 17% of students were bullied
• 19% reported bullying others
• Boys more likely to be physically bullied
• Girls more likely to be verbally or
psychologically bullied
• Bullying most common in 6th – 8th grades
• Bullies more likely to use drugs
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Habitual bullies – observed adult conflict
and aggression at home
–Proactive aggressors – it works
• Chronic victims – generally disliked
–Passive victims – withdrawn, weak,
but do not invite aggression
»Overprotective mothers
–Provocative victims – irritate peers,
fight back unsuccessfully
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Popularity and Aggression
• Popularity
–Being well-known and accepted by
other children
–Having high status attributes
–Highly desirable possessions
–Being liked is not part of the definition
• Popular children use aggression to
maintain status
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Cultural and Subcultural Influences on
Aggression
– Differences between cultures are evident
Lower SES – more aggression
• Due to child-rearing differences
–Physical punishment is higher in low
SES families – modeling aggression
–Difficulty monitoring children
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Coercive Home Environments: Breeding
Grounds for Aggression
– Families as Social Systems
• Families of aggressive children focused
on interactions that stopped irritation
• Negative reinforcement
• Ignore prosocial behavior
• Use coercive tactics to deal with
misconduct
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
• Methods of Controlling Aggression in Young
Children
– Creating Nonaggressive Environments
• Remove aggressive toys
• Provide enough space for play
• Provide enough toys to reduce
competition for scarce resources
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Eliminating the Payoffs for Aggression
• Teach that aggression does not result in
desired outcome
• Incompatible-response technique
–Ignore aggressive behaviors –
eliminates reward of attention
–Time out technique
–Reinforce prosocial actions
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSION
– Social-Cognitive Interventions
• Use with older children and adolescents
–Can teach individuals to
»Regulate anger
»Increase empathizing with others,
taking their perspectives; reduces
hostile attributions
»Generate nonaggressive solutions
to conflict
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Origins of Altruism – concern for the welfare
of others and willingness to act on that
concern
– 12 to 18 month olds offer toys to peers
– Toddlers can express sympathy
• Verbally rebuking children and physically
punishing them reduces compassion
• Discipline based on affective explanation
increases compassion
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Developmental Trends in Altruism
– 2-3 year olds show sympathy/compassion
• Rarely engage in spontaneous acts of
self-sacrifice; but did during pretend play
– 4-6 year olds – more real helping acts,
fewer during pretend play
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Sex Differences in Altruism
– Girls are more likely to be helpful,
generous, and compassionate than boys
(small difference)
– Boys more interested in looking good or
attaining status over others
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Social-Cognitive and Affective Contributions
to Altruism
– Children with well-developed role-taking
skills are more helpful
– Prosocial moral reasoning
• Preschoolers’ tend to be self-serving
• Older adolescents are much more
responsive to the needs of others
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
– Empathy: An Important Affective
Contributor to Altruism
• Empathy – person’s ability to experience
the emotions of other people.
–Personal/self-oriented distress can
lead to ignoring others in need
–Sympathetic empathetic arousal –
concern for distressed others
increases altruism
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Socialization of Empathy
–Model empathetic concern
–Rely on affectively-oriented forms of
discipline
–Use of positive facial expressions
when modeling sympathy
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Age Trends in the Empathy-Altruism
Relationship
–Little relationship between empathy
and altruism among preschool and
young grade school children
–Stronger for older individuals
»Need to understand why others
are distressed
»Need to suppress own distress
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• The Felt-Responsibility Hypothesis
–Sympathetic empathetic arousal
causes one to reflect on altruistic
lessons
–Result is assuming personal
responsibility for aiding a person in
distress
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Cultural and Social Influences on Altruism
– Cultural Influences
• Altruism more common in less
industrialized societies – where children
help more with the family
• Assigning chores improves altruism in
Western societies
•
Table 14.1 Prosocial Behavior in Six Cultures: Percentages of Children in Each Culture Who
Scored above the Median Altruism Score for the Cross-Cultural Sample as a Whole. SOURCE:
Based on Whiting & Whiting, 1975.
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Collectivist societies
–Encourage more cooperation and
altruism
–Less likely to take credit for altruistic
acts; actually more likely to deny their
role in the positive action
•
Figure 14.5 Rating by Canadian and Chinese children of actors who told the truth or lied about
committing good deeds. ADAPTED FROM LEE ET AL., 1997.
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
– Social Influences
• Reinforcing Altruism
–Verbal reinforcement increases
altruism
–Tangible rewards decreases altruism
• Practicing and Preaching Altruism
–Altruistic modeling is also important
ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PROSOCIAL SELF
• Who Raises Altruistic Children?
– Altruistic parents
– Parents who discipline children in ways
that encourage children to accept personal
responsibility for the harm they caused
• Urge a helpful response to the victim
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Morality
– Distinguish right from wrong
– Act on that distinction
– Experience pride in virtuous conduct;
shame over acts that violate standards
– Internalization of standards is vital
•
Table 14.2 Six Dimensions of Character That Define Moral Maturity for Canadian
Adults. SOURCE: Walker & Pitts, 1998.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• How Developmentalists Look at Morality
– Affective component – stressed by
psychoanalytic theorists – moral affects
– Cognitive component – stressed by
cognitive-developmental theorists – moral
reasoning
– Behavioral component – stressed by social
learning and social information-processing
theorists – moral behavior
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• The Affective Component of Moral
Development
– Freud’s Theory of Oedipal Morality
• Superego develops during phallic stage
• Identifies with same-sex parent
• Internalizes same-sex moral standards
–Girls have weaker superegos than
boys
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Evaluation of Freud’s Theory
• Pride, shame, guilt are important for
ethical conduct
• Internalization of standards is vital
• Details of theory unsupported
–Harsh discipline = less morality
–Boys not more moral than girls
–Underestimated when children begin
expressing morality
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Newer Ideas about the Development of the
Conscience
• Toddlers involved in mutually responsive
relationships with parents develop
–Committed compliance
»Motivation to comply with rules
»Sensitivity to parent’s emotional
signals of right and wrong
»Beginning of internalization
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• The Cognitive Component of Moral
Development
– Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
• Studied respect for rules and
conceptions of justice
• The Premoral Period
–Preschool age – little concern for, or
awareness of, rules
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Heteronomous Morality
–5 to 10 years old – strong respect for
rules; they cannot be altered
–Actions are judged by consequences,
not intent
–Believe in punishment for its own
sake
–Immanent justice – violations of social
rules will be punished
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Autonomous Morality
–Ages 10 or 11, rules are arbitrary
agreements that can be changed
–Rules can be violated to help others
–Intent is now important in determining
right and wrong
–Favor reciprocal punishments –
tailored to the transgression
–Immanent justice is not accurate
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Moving From Heteronomous to
Autonomous Morality
–Cognitive maturation – decline in
egocentrism, increase in role-taking
–Social experience – equal status with
peers is vital
»Lessen respect for adult authority
»Increases self and peer respect
»Shows rules are arbitrary
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– An Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
• Cross-culturally replicated results if his
methods are used
• Underestimated moral capacities of
preschool and grade-school children
–Difference between moral rules and
social-conventional rules
• Parents can retard moral development,
but most foster growth
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
• Used dilemmas requiring choice
between obeying rules or disobeying
rules while serving a human need
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Level 1: Preconventional Morality
–Stage 1: Punishment-and-Obedience
Orientation
»Goodness or badness depends on
consequences of act – bad acts
are punished
–Stage 2: Naïve Hedonism
»Conform to rules to gain rewards
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Level 2: Conventional Morality
–Stage 3: “Good Boy” or “Good Girl”
Orientation
»Moral behavior pleases, helps, or
is approved of by others
–Stage 4: Social-Order-Maintaining
Morality
»Right conforms to legal authority;
rules maintain social order
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Level 3: Postconventional (or Principled)
Morality
–Stage 5: The Social-Contract
Orientation
»Laws should express will of
majority, and further human
welfare; if not, challenge them
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
–Stage 6: Morality of Individual
Principles of Conscience
»Individual abstract moral
guidelines that transcend laws
»Rare (a hypothetical construct)
»No longer measured
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Support for Kohlberg’s Theory
• Are Kohlberg’s Stages an Invariant
Sequence?
–Individuals do proceed through
stages in order
–Stages are not skipped
–Stage 3 or 4 is highest level for most
people
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Cognitive Prerequisites for Moral Growth
–Preconventional child reasons from
an egocentric point of view
–Conventional reasoning requires roletaking abilities
–Postconventional reasoning requires
formal operations
–All have received support
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Evidence for Kohlberg’s SocialExperience Hypothesis
–Parental and Peer Influences
»Support for peer influences,
especially transitive interactions
»Parents contribute more than
Kohlberg thought if they presented
their reasoning in supportive ways
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
–Advanced Education
»More education, higher level of
moral reasoning
»Contributes to cognitive growth
»Exposes students to diverse moral
perspectives
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
–Cultural Influences
»Complex, diverse, democratic
societies stimulate moral
development
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Approach
• Is Kohlberg’s Theory Culturally Biased?
–Some aspects of moral development
vary among societies
»Cultural beliefs define morality
• Is Kohlberg’s Theory Gender Biased?
–Morality of justice for males, versus
morality of caring for females
»Not supported by research
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Is Kohlberg’s Theory Incomplete?
–Emphasizes moral reasoning, did not
focus on moral affect or behavior
–Thought mature moral reasoning
would lead to moral behavior
»Supported by research
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Does Kohlberg Underestimate Young
Children?
–Yes, as his focus was on legalistic
concepts
–Did not examine distributive justice
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• The Behavioral Component of Moral
Development
– How Consistent are Moral Conduct and
Moral Character?
• Recent research shows that moral
behaviors of a particular kind are
reasonably consistent
• Moral behaviors of different kinds are
less consistent
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Learning to Resist Temptation
– Reinforcement as a Determinant of Moral
Conduct
• Children generally comply with wishes of
a warm, socially reinforcing adult
• Praise is also important
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– The Role of Punishment in Establishing
Moral Prohibitions
• Investigating Resistance to Temptation
–Punishment should be firm
–Administered immediately and
consistently by a warm disciplinarian
–Reasons for not performing the act
should be provided
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Explaining the Effects of Cognitive
Rationales
–Reasoning can result in internal
attributions (guilt, harm self-image)
–Punishment can lead to external
attributions – avoid punishment
»Obey when authority figures are
present, not in their absence
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Moral Self-Concept Training
–Can teach children to avoid
temptations based on internal
attributions
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– Social Modeling Influences on Moral
Behavior
• Children learn from watching others, if
they know the other is resisting the
temptation to violate a rule
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Who Raises Children Who Are Morally
Mature?
– Love withdrawal and power assertion, did
not promote moral growth
– Induction – explaining why a behavior is
wrong and how it should be changed
• Fostered moral emotions, reasoning,
and behavior
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
– A Child’s-Eye View of Discipline
• Children and adolescents preferred
induction, even to permissive
nonintervention
–Recognized a need for occasional
power assertion
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT,
COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR
• Integrating the Components of Moral
Development
– Arsenio and Lemerise’s social informationprocessing model combines moral affect,
moral behavior, and moral reasoning
•
Figure 14.8 2 A simplified version of Arsenio and Lemerise’s Social Information-Processing Model
of Moral Behavior performance. ADAPTED FROM ARSENIO & LEMERISE, 2004.