POLICING TERRORISM:
A THREAT TO COMMUNITY POLICING OR JUST A
SHIFT IN PRIORITIES?
PRESENTED TO
THE INTERNATIONAL POLICE EXECUTIVE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING
THE KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN
11 – 15 OCTOBER, 2003
BY
JOHN MURRAY APM, BA, LLB, MBA, GCLP
CHIEF POLICE OFFICER
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY
INTRODUCTION
SHIFT FROM TRADITIONAL TO COMMUNITY
POLICING
POST SEPTEMBER 11 – CHANGE IN PUBLIC
FACE OF POLICING
WILL EXAMINE/CONTRAST TRADITIONAL &
COMMUNITY POLICING
EXAMINE CHALLENGES TO COMMUNITY
POLICING
PUBLIC EXPECTATIONS
GOVERNMENT POLICY
POLICE CULTURE
EXAMINE IMPACT OF TERRORISM ON
COMMUNITY POLICING
CURRENT ENVIRONMENT - THE VALUE OF
COMMUNITY POLICING
TRANSITION
FROM TRADITIONAL TO COMMUNITY POLICING
PEEL PRINCIPLES OF EARLY POLICING
COOPERATION
PARTNERSHIP
“CONSENT”
PRINCIPLES APPLY TODAY BUT THE NOTION OF
MILITARISM IS STILL THE BASIS OF MOST
FORCES / SERVICES
TRANSITION
FROM TRADITIONAL TO COMMUNITY POLICING
LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL POLICING
PREDOMINENTLY REACTIVE
EMPHASIS ON ARREST AS SUCCESS INDICATOR
INABILITY TO GET CLOSE TO COMMUNITY –
ACTION ORIENTATION
CUMBERSOME BUREAUCRACY
WHEREAS IN COMMUNITY POLICING
CRIME PREVENTION AS EMPHASIS
PROBLEM SOLVING AS WELL AS ARREST
CLOSE TO COMMUNITY - SERVICE
ORIENTATION
DEVOLUTION OF AUTHORITY & FREEDOM TO
ACT
(Moore 1994)
COMMUNITY POLICING
WHILE NO SINGLE DEFINITION THERE
TENDS TO BE:
COMMUNITY BASED PREVENTION
PROACTIVE POLICING
INCREASED ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE
PUBLIC
DECENTRALISED POLICE WITH
EXTENSIVE AUTHORITY TO ACT ON OWN
INITIATIVE
(Skolnick & Bayley, 1998)
POLICE CULTURE
POLICING – TOO IMPORTANT TO BE TAKEN
FOR GRANTED OR IGNORED
(Van Maanen, 1978)
HIGH LEVELS OF DISCRETION AT LOWEST
LEVEL OR ORGANISATION
SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON LIVES/LIBERTIES OF
CITIZENS
MOST POLICE DECISIONS ARE WITHOUT
OVERSIGHT/SCRUTINY
POLICE CULTURE
A BIAS TOWARDS TRADITIONAL POLICING?
RECOGNISED BY SOCIETY & THEMSELVES AS HAVING
IDENTIFIABLE COMPLEX OF VALUES, COMMUNICATION
SYMBOLS, TECHNIQUES, & BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS
(McBride, 1995)
“WORKING PERSONALITY” – SUSPICIOUSNESS,
INTERNAL SOLIDARITY, SOCIAL ISOLATION,
CONSERVATISM
(Skolnick, 1966)
SENSE OF MISSION, ACTION ORIENTATION, CYNICISM,
SUSPICIOUSNESS, ISOLATED SOCIAL LIFE,
CONSERVATISM
(Reiner, 1992)
SUPPORTED TO VARYING DEGREES
Goldstein (1976), Fitzgerald (1989), Goldsmith (1990),
Skolnick & Fyfe (1993) and Wood (1997)
IDEAL PROFILE FOR
COMMUNITY POLICE OFFICERS
RESEARCH PROFILE FOR
OPERATIONAL POLICE
Commitment to community consultation
and problem solving.
A sense of mission about police work but a
distancing from the rest of the community.
Open and accessible in the provision of a
service.
Suspiciousness.
Creative and innovative in promoting
solutions to problems and crime
prevention.
A pragmatic view of police work which
discourages innovation and experimentation
Freedom to exercise discretion at the
A preference for action orientation and
lowest level of policing so as to incorporate arrests.
a problem-solving mentality as an
alternative to arrest.
Excellent communication skills so as to
be able to develop a rapport with the
community, and in turn win respect and
trust.
An isolated social life coupled with a strong
code of solidarity with other police officers.
A cynical or pessimistic perspective about
their social environment.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
Policing as a craft
Policing as a Profession
Culture Developed
on the Job
Traditionally policing
regarded as craft /
trade - best learned
‘on the job’.
Conscious drive for policing
to be accepted as a
‘profession’.
With traditional
policing - reliance on
status quo - learning
from experienced
officers. With
community policing more ‘open’ culture
which places reliance
on community
expectations.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
Paramilitary
Management Style
Democratic Management
Style
Traditional policing based either entirely
on military lines or at
least draw on their
principles.
While command & control is
necessary - these situations
are relatively few and
management allows
contribution from all ranks
as to how the job is done.
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
Empowered or
Disempowered
Culture
A paramilitary culture
assumes that
authority is linked to
rank. With a
democratic style
management culture –
confidence and
genuine participation.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
Authoritarian
Approach to
Policing
Traditional policing
promotes strict
enforcement of laws,
little concern about the
causes of crime,
limited prosecutorial
discretion, and less
emphasis on
preventing crime.
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
Problem Solving
Approach to Policing
Linking Culture to
the Philosophy
Here there is an
understanding what causes
crime and there is a
conscious commitment to
joining with the community
to prevent crime.
In traditional policing tendency for
authoritarianism,
defensism, cynicism
and action-orientation
which result in a
distancing from the
community. In
community policing
the culture is open,
consultative and
geared to solving
problems.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
Inflexible Structure
Flexible Structure
In the traditional
model, there tends to
be a rigid, centralised
bureaucracy with
officers working to
predetermined rules
and practices.
Community policing
devolves authority and
decision-making which
encourages initiative.
Officers work to values and
standards.
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
From Compliant to
Adaptive Culture
With traditional
policing, the culture
tends to be
regimented and
compliant.
Community policing is
adaptive recognizing
that there is usually
no single solution to
problems/issues.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
Blame Culture
Learning Culture
The paramilitary model
of policing assumes
that police officers will
inevitably do
something wrong and
when they do they
should be punished.
A learning culture
recognises the failure of the
punitive model and
educates/corrects minor and
understandable breaches
rather than punish.
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
From Institutional to
Personal Discipline
The punitive model
creates
apprehension, anxiety,
defensiveness and
denial. An ‘us-them
(management)’ culture
results. In a learning
culture officers work to
values and minor
breaches are regarded
as curable mistakes –
a move from threat to
incentive.
CULTURE AND
ALIGNMENT TO POLICING MODELS
TRADITIONAL
POLICING AND
LINKS TO
PARAMILITARISM
COMMUNITY
POLICING AND
DEMOCRATIC
MANAGEMENT
CULTURE –
CONTRASTING AND
COMPARING
Insularity and
Defensiveness
Openness and
Consultation
Move Towards
Transparency
In traditional policing
there is a tendency
towards the notion that
police are the only
ones who know
anything about
policing. Academics
or other commentators
are not appreciated.
In community policing other
expert advice is invited and
individual police
contributions are considered
worthwhile.
With traditional police defensive culture - a
tendency towards craft
secrecy. Inherent in CP police are part of the
community and a
desired culture is one
which recognizes and
works to a model that
allows the public to
know how and why the
police operate the way
they do.
MOVES TOWARDS MILITARISM
PRIOR TO SEPTEMBER 11
A LAISSEZ FAIRE ATTITUDE TO NATIONAL
SECURITY
THOUGH:
A SPAWNING CULTURE OF PARAMILITARISM (USA)
(Weber,1999)
‘VELVET GLOVE’ COVERING THE ‘IRON FIST’ OF
MILITARY STYLE OF POLICING (AUSTRALIA)
(McCulloch, 2001)
COMMUNITY POLICING & UNITS OF
PARAMILITARISM CAN / SHOULD COEXIST
SPECIFIC CHALLENGES TO COMMUNITY
POLICING IN TERRORIST ENVIRONMENT
“ … in the context of war against terror, some tenets of
community policing appear to be inconsistent with the
implementation of these new police roles [though
community policing should] probably not be
abandoned.”
de Guzman (2002)
Because:
i. CP ideal is to win hearts & minds of the community – you
cannot reason with terrorists
ii. CP assumes community cooperation & trust – terrorism
erodes that trust
iii. CP needs partnerships in strategies – police will hold back &
trust will be breached
iv. CP is parochial – not broad enough for terrorism
ADDRESSING THE DE GUZMAN CHALLENGES
DE GUZMAN
COMMUNITY POLICING
Philosophical ideal of CP - to win the hearts
and minds of the community but this will
not be successful as you can’t reason with
terrorists.
CP works best when sharing with the
community – vast majority of any community is
law abiding - to exclude or isolate any sub
group amounts to failing in police
responsibility – should rebuild trust with
certain specific ethnic/cultural groups.
With CP there is community cooperation and
trust – terrorists constantly employ deceit
and police should be reluctant to invest their
trust on unidentifiable forces.
Successful prevention and detection depends
on information – terrorists can assume
positions in the community – a CP relationship
which enjoys trust and mutual respect is more
likely to identify the threat/s.
CP involves a partnership with police & rest of
the community & to have strategies of crime
prevention & operations – with terrorism
police will hold back and the mutual trust will
be breached – ultimately CP will whither away.
Never expected that police will divulge details of
operations – the community has a right to
certain information – with terrorism, community
needs to be aware of the level of threat so as to
make decisions about what they do – with CP
people are more likely to feel comfortable about
coming forward with information.
CP is parochial and the ‘war on terror’ requires CP, when working well, adopts broader,
broader collaboration.
national/international perspective.
CONCLUSIONS
TRADITIONAL POLICING RELIES ON PARAMILITARISM –
PREDOMINANTLY REACTIVE – UNABLE TO DEVELOP &
SUSTAIN COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP
COMMUNITY POLICING REFRESHING – DEMOCRATIC –
POLICE IN PARTNERSHIP WITH COMMUNITY – LESS
EMPHASIS ON ARREST – CONCENTRATES ON PROBLEM
SOLVING AND CRIME PREVENTION
POLICE CULTURE SHOWS PREFERENCE FOR ACTION –
LESS INTEREST IN ‘SOFT’ POLICING
EVEN WHERE COMMUNITY POLICING ADOPTED –
CULTURE TENSION STILL EXISTS
CONCLUSIONS
AFTER SEPT 11 NEEDS TO BE A SHIFT OF EMPHASIS BUT
NOT THE ABANDONMENT OF COMMUNITY POLICING
COMMUNITY POLICING WILL BE MORE EFFECTIVE –
ESPECIALLY IN AREA OF PREVENTION
COMMISSIONERS / CHIEFS SHOULD BE ALERT TO
PRESSURES TO REVERT TO TRADITIONAL MODEL OF
POLICING – WOULD UNDUE ALL THE GOOD WORK OVER
THE DECADES WHICH HAS PLACED COMMUNITY
POLICING AS AN EXEMPLAR OF PUBLIC SERVICE IN A
CIVIL AND DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY
THANK YOU