The Self, Identity,
& Personality
Chapter 11
SELF
• All the Characteristics of the Person
• Self-concept: everything the person believes
to be true about him/herself
• Includes traits, preferences, social roles,
values, beliefs, interests, self-categorization
• Self-understanding develops throughout the
lifespan
Self-Awareness in Infancy
• Dot-of-rouge experiment
• Recognize selves in mirror at 15-18
months
• 15-23 months
– Personal pronoun use
– Picture recognition
– Self-referencing, ownership, self-monitoring
Self in Early Childhood
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Confusion of self, mind, and body
Concrete descriptions
Physical descriptions
Activities – what they do
Overestimation of abilities
Self – Middle & Late Childhood
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Shift to internal traits and abilities
Social role descriptions
Real and ideal selves
More realistic about abilities
Perspective Taking
• Opposite of egocentrism – the ability to
assume another’s perspective
• Children who are good at this are
popular
• Development progresses through stages
(Selman)
Self in Adolescence
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Abstract-idealistic
Self-conscious/ preoccupied
Contradictions within self
Fluctuating picture across time/situations
Possible selves
Self-integrations as they get older
Self in Adulthood
• Self-awareness (emotional intelligence)
– Accept own good and bad qualities
• Possible selves become more realistic
• Life review – evaluation of successes &
failures; more likely as you get older
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Evaluative part of the self-concept
– emotional
• Difference between the real and ideal self
– Have you realized your potential?
– Do you value the trait, but have little potential?
– Ideal self includes the “ought” and the “wish”
selves
• Measure of our sense of meaning in life
– This includes purpose
– Self-respect (Have you lived up to who you are?)
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Influenced by the reactions of others
– Generalized other, great ubiquitous “they”
• People are susceptible to flattery
• It is tougher to accept criticism
• Basis for conformity
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Self-serving bias
– Overrate ourselves
– Blame our failures
– Claim our victories
– As a rule, only depressed people truly have low
self-esteem
The Self-Esteem Movement
Thank you to Dr. Tracey Zinn, on whose
conference presentation this section is
based.
What’s the problem?
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The Self-Esteem Movement
Propagated primarily in the educational system
Curricula aimed at increasing students’ self-esteem
Affects Everyone born after 1970…
Focus has been on increasing self-esteem that is
not rooted in reality
Researchers now suggesting that students need to
be able to identify their talents
What Was Taught
“Keep your head up, feel good about yourself”
but not “take responsibility for your work”.
Forsyth et al (2007)
“You can do anything!”
No use of the word “failure”
Everyone got all As in HS, doing little work
Unrealistic expectations of success
Students report being bored in class
What Resulted
What Resulted: Attitudes
• “Being happy is the most important thing”
• We should always feel good about ourselves
• Increase in narcissism (debated)
• Don’t say “I’m a good soccer player” (Just say “I’m
good.”)
What Resulted: Attitudes
Carol Dweck’s research
Effort is considered a sign of stupidity
When children are told that they are smart, they
choose an easier task.
Panic when they are challenged or
think they are engaging in “a lot of effort”.
Result – Confused Parents
• Encouraged delicate handling of children
• Shielded them from negative emotions, criticism
• Praised kids regardless of what they did
Carol Dweck’s research
Parents often think that helping their kids build selfesteem is done by shielding them from criticism and
praising their talents
Protecting kids from hurt, failure, criticism, &
disappointment has made them more vulnerable
What Resulted - Behaviors
• Thin skinned undergraduates, defensive when they miss
questions or are challenged
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Generation X Goes to College (Peter Sacks)
• Students seem to be incapable of handling negative feedback.
• New hires are asking for raises and promotions almost
immediately after being hired.
• When students with high SE are criticized
– Unfriendly, rude, and uncooperative.
• Entitlement regularly cited as an issue in college.
What Failed to Result
[High self-esteem] Isn’t associated with
improved grades, career achievement, reduced
alcohol usage, lower violent behavior, etc.
Baumeister and colleagues (2003)
Educational Outcomes of the SelfEsteem Movement
Susan Jacoby The Age of American Unreason
Are our students (people) hostile to knowledge?
Self-esteem movement = I’m the smartest kid!
“I’m supposed to be happy!”
Backlash against Self-Esteem
John Hewitt’s
The Myth of Self-Esteem: Finding Happiness
and Solving Problems in America
“Why do you feel good about yourself?”
“Because of self-esteem”
Backlash against Self-Esteem
Generation Me
Risk of depression & anxiety higher for young people
today
“Our growing tendency to put the self first leads to
unparalleled freedom, but it also creates an enormous
amount of pressure on us to stand alone.”
Are Negative Emotions Normal?
Against happiness: In praise of melancholy
Eric Wilson
Loss of sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal
Sorrow into Depressive Disorder
Alan Horwitz & James Wakefield
The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation
of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders
Peter Conrad
Self-Worth
– Meaning
– Purpose
– Living up to your identity & your destiny
Components of Identity
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Career
Political views
Religious beliefs
Relationships
Ethnic identity
Personality
Body image
Erikson
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
• Identity crisis - exploration
• Identity commitment
• Problems:
– Weak sense of trust
– Little autonomy or initiative
– Lack of industry
Marcia’s Paths to Identity
• Identity diffusion
– No crisis/ commitment
• Identity foreclosure
– Commitment/ no crisis
• Identity moratorium
– Crisis/ no commitment
• Identity achievement (goal)
– Commitment following crisis
Erikson –Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Middle Adulthood
• Self-absorption
• Self-indulgence