Scientific Writing
Introduction:
the structure and logic (part-3)
Outline :next sessions
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Importance
Continuity
Question precision
Summary
– Empty sheet-2
• Two question
• Signals
– Empty sheet-3
• Population and material
• Descriptive papers
• Method paper
Outline
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From last session
Exercise
Key terms
References
Tens
Size
Exercise
Abstract
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Literature Cited
Known-unknown
1)the background of the research
question,
2) previous research in the area
Question-hypothesis
3) problems should included with that research
4) what you did to fix those problems.
ORGANIZATION FOR
HYPOTHESISTESTING PAPERS
What is the problem?
• Drinking three glasses of whisky a
week does not reduce teetotallers'
chances of dying of coronary
artery disease.
No Answer, Results, or Implications
• Should not be included in the Introduction
– Answer to the question
– Results
– Implications
Checklist for introduction
• 1)the background of the research question
–
–
–
–
Focused (Too many details)
Informative, enlighten (Trivial, unimportant )
Intriguing (Dull, boring, clichéd )
Reader-friendly (Arcane, don't just launch (start) into your exposition (show).)
• 2) previous research in the area
– Synthetic (Pedantic, sophistic )
– go back at least 10 years
• 3) problems should included with that research
–
–
–
–
Explanatory, clarifying (Uninformative)
Relevant (ridicule)
True (Misleading)
Gentle, passive voice (Harsh)
• 4) what you did to fix those problems.
– highlight innovative features of your design, sample, or measurement
methods.
Known-unknown
1)the background of the research
question,
2) previous research in the area
Question-hypothesis
3) problems should included with that research
4) what you did to fix those problems.
3) problems with past research
• Do not be hypercritical or overly detailed in
your criticism. Your reviewer may be a
colleague of the criticized author who uses the
same methodology.
• Worse, the reviewer may be the subject of your
criticism herself. Instead, describe the general
category of the problem.
• Avoid antagonistic phrases ("failed to,,' ,,made
the mistake of," "used invalid techniques") and
singling out a specific author for blame.
3) problems with past research
• Harsh:
• Incredibly, Langford-an incompetent researcher if there
ever was one, despite his Nobel Prize foolishly did not
recognize the importance of asking about prior history
of stroke, and erroneously misclassified several living
subjects as dead because they did not return a
questionnaire.
• Gentle:
• Previous research did not account for the possible
effects of prior history of stroke, or hove l00%
complete follow-up.
3) problems with past research
• Even better, sometimes you can cite another
author who has criticized the prior study in an
editorial, review, or letter to the editor. The use
of the passive voice softens the blow:
• The results of that study have been questioned
because.
• Some have suggested that the results of this
study ….
3) problems with past research
• Sometimes, there is nothing wrong with previous
research: Some studies found black, and others found
white. If that is the case, then say so, providing the
references.
• Of the three previous studies of this question, two
found that a routine program of physical therapy for
elderly inpatients was associated with a modest
reduction in length of hospital stay (4,5), whereas
another study concluded that there was no benefit (6).
• Several Vs several !? no
Vitamin D deficiency and causative factors in the population of Tehran
Sima Hashemipour,1 Bagher Larijani, 1 Hossein Adibi,1 Ebrahim Javadi,1 Mojtaba Sedaghat,1 Mohammad Pajouhi,1 Akbar
Soltani,1 Ali Reza Shafaei,1 Zohreh Hamidi,1 Ali Reza Khalili Fard,1 Arash Hossein-Nezhad,1 and Fargol Booya1
• Introduction:
• Vitamin D is an essential element for establishing and maintananing bone structure.
Vitamin D deficiency results in rickets and osteomalacia. Even slight vitamin D
deficiency results in secondary hyperparathyroidism and increased bone resorption
[1,2]. In addition, there has been increased attention to the physiologic importance of
vitamin D in non-skeletal tissues [3].
• Vitamin D is supplied by consumption of vitamin D-rich foods and by vitamin D
synthesis in skin.
• Natural nutrient materials are not a sufficient source of vitamin D to supply the body
requirements; therefore where there is no supplementation of foodstuffs, the main
source for vitamin D is produced by UV light [4,5].
• Regarding the significant role of sunlight in vitamin D synthesis, it is quite logical to
suggest low prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in tropical countries. However the
studies carried out in the preceding two decades have shown a high prevalence of
vitamin D deficiency in tropical countries such as China, Turkey, India, Iran and
Saudi Arabia [6-14]. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency varied between 30%
and 93%. However, the majority of these studies were limited to specific age and sex
groups. Therefore, elucidation of vitamin D status at the community level and in
different climates of a country seems essential.
• The present study is a part of a national project of prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of osteoporosis that investigates the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency
and its influencing factors in the population of Tehran.
1)the background of the research
question,
2) previous research in the area
3) problems should included with that research
4) what you did to fix those problems.
4) what you did to fix those problems
• Conclude the introduction by telling the reader
about the major improvements you have made
on past research. Here is your chance to
highlight innovative features of your design,
sample, or measurement methods. The
introduction should end with a one-sentence
overview of your study:
4) what you did to fix those problems
• To address these problems, we documented
variceal bleeding using this newly developed
noninvasive in situ scintigraphic technique.
Patients who were bleeding of a rate of 2O cc
per minute or more were randomly assigned to
sclerotherapy with either SuperGlue or shark
liver oil, and followed for rebleeding, length of
hospital stay, and 6-month mortality.
4) what you did to fix those
problems
• What if your study is a “sequel (continuation)" to a
prior study from your research group? In that
situation, clearly state how the current study
expands on that work.
–
–
–
–
Are you reanalyzing previously reported data?
Did you enroll new, or additional, subjects?
Did you develop a new methodology?
Have the results changed because of additional
follow-up?
4) what you did to fix those
problems
• We expand our prior findings by including 50
additional patients, for a total of 96, as well as
the results of the newly developed latex
heterophile agglomeration test.
Vitamin D deficiency and causative factors in the population of Tehran
Sima Hashemipour,1 Bagher Larijani, 1 Hossein Adibi,1 Ebrahim Javadi,1 Mojtaba Sedaghat,1 Mohammad Pajouhi,1 Akbar
Soltani,1 Ali Reza Shafaei,1 Zohreh Hamidi,1 Ali Reza Khalili Fard,1 Arash Hossein-Nezhad,1 and Fargol Booya1
• Introduction:
• Vitamin D is an essential element for establishing and maintananing bone structure.
Vitamin D deficiency results in rickets and osteomalacia. Even slight vitamin D
deficiency results in secondary hyperparathyroidism and increased bone resorption
[1,2]. In addition, there has been increased attention to the physiologic importance of
vitamin D in non-skeletal tissues [3].
• Vitamin D is supplied by consumption of vitamin D-rich foods and by vitamin D
synthesis in skin.
• Natural nutrient materials are not a sufficient source of vitamin D to supply the body
requirements; therefore where there is no supplementation of foodstuffs, the main
source for vitamin D is produced by UV light [4,5].
• Regarding the significant role of sunlight in vitamin D synthesis, it is quite logical to
suggest low prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in tropical countries. However the
studies carried out in the preceding two decades have shown a high prevalence of
vitamin D deficiency in tropical countries such as China, Turkey, India, Iran and
Saudi Arabia [6-14]. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency varied between 30%
and 93%. However, the majority of these studies were limited to specific age and sex
groups. Therefore, elucidation of vitamin D status at the community level and in
different climates of a country seems essential.
• The present study is a part of a national project of prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of osteoporosis that investigates the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency
and its influencing factors in the population of Tehran.
Checklist: introduction should
• be direct and to the point
• be clear and informative
• be short and arresting, and they should tell the
reader why you have undertaken the study.
• not say Several studies Vs several others
• not summarise everything (analysis Vs
synthesis!)
• not repeat material that is in all the textbooks
and that your readers will know.
• not be wholly unfamiliar
Checklist for introduction
1. be direct and to the point
2. be clear and informative
3. be short and arresting, and
they should tell the reader
why you have undertaken
the study.
4. not say Several studies Vs
several others
5. not summarise everything
(analysis Vs synthesis!)
6. not repeat material that is in
all the textbooks and that
your readers will know.
7. not be wholly unfamiliar
• 1)the background of the research question
– Focused (Too many details)
– Informative, enlighten (Trivial,
unimportant )
– Intriguing (Dull, boring, clichéd )
– Reader-friendly (Arcane, don't just
launch (start) into your exposition
(show).)
• 2) previous research in the area
– Synthetic (Pedantic, sophistic )
– go back at least 10 years
• 3) problems should included with that
research
– Explanatory, clarifying (Uninformative)
– Relevant (ridicule)
– True (Misleading)
– Gentle, passive voice (Harsh)
• 4) what you did to fix those problems.
– highlight innovative features of your
design, sample, or measurement
methods.
Outline
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
From last session
Exercise
Key terms
References
Tens
Size
Exercise
Key terms
• The question should repeat the key terms of
the title and the Introduction as well as the
objectives, the independent and dependent
variables, the species, and, when necessary,
the groups.
Example
• General Area
• Restenosis after an initially successful
percutaneous transluminal coronary
angioplasty remains an important unsolved
problem with this promising revascularization
technique. Retrospective studies have found that
several clinical, angiographic, and procedural
variables are important predictors of restenosis.
Example (cont’d)
• Gap or General Problem
• There is considerable variation among the
studies, however, and the results are often
difficult to interpret. Prospective trials are
clearly needed to confirm the observations
made in retrospective studies and to assess
whether the risk of restenosis can be predicted
accurately in specific patients.
Example (cont’d)
• Previous Findings
• Several studies have reported high rates of
restenosis among patients with coronary
vasospasm, such as Prinzmetal’s angina, as well
as among those with coronary lesions
susceptible to abnormal vasoconstriction during
provocative testing.
Example (cont’d)
• Hypothesis or Research Question
• We designed a prospective trial to test whether
abnormal coronary vasoconstriction, detected
by hyperventilation testing before angioplasty,
increases the likelihood of restenosis. A test that
could accurately identify patients at high risk of
restenosis might influence management.
Example (cont’d)
• This Introduction reads well. Note the repetition of key
words and phrases, which also serve as transitions for
the reader. With the first word, you know the subject of
the paper, “restenosis,” which is followed almost
immediately by the narrowed subject, “predictors of
restenosis.”
• The author then discusses the shortcomings of the
available retrospective studies and addresses the need
for a prospective study.
• His hypothesis, “We designed a prospective trial . . .”
follows obviously from the gap in knowledge. The
author’s final statement informs the reader of the
importance of this work to patient care.
Length
• Logic: The Introduction should be as short as
possible consistent with clarity and
informativeness. Generally; shorter is better. The
amount of background information needed for
complete informativeness depends on how much
the intended audience can be expected to know
about the topic.
Length
• Logic: Do not review the topic. That is what
review articles are for. The purposes of the
Introduction are to prepare the reader to
understand the paper and to awaken interest.
• Long introductions kill off interest and are often
confusing and misleading. So tell only as much as
necessary to get the reader from a reasonable
starting point to the question. (BMJ)
Size
• For a typical journal article, one double-spaced
page (about 250-300 words) is often sufficient.
When a longer Introduction is needed, try to keep
it to two double-spaced pages (500-600 words).
• Try to limit it within two double-spaced pages or
2-3 paragraphs (BMJ)
• Keep the Introduction short: one or two typed
pages.
Verb Tense Statement Example
• Present
• Present perfect
• Present or
present perfect
• Past or present
• Simple past
• Hypothetical
•
• Question Known
• Transition clause introducing
•
something known
•
• Unknown
•
• Signal of the question
"whether X increases Y"
"X is a component ofY."
"It has long been known that..."
"X is unknown."
"X has not been determined."
"We hypothesized that. .
"The purpose of this study was...
"We asked whether, , ," but "This
report describes
• Experimental approach, and •
anything else done by you or
others in the past
•
• Suggestions, possibilities •
"we assessed"
•
•
•
"X may have an effect on . .
"X might reduce. . ."
References
• The statements about what is known must
include references (see Examples 4.1 ).
• The number of references should be kept to a
minimum. If a lot of work has been done on the
topic, select papers describing the first, the most
important, the most elegant, and the most recent
studies. You can also cite review articles.
Exercises 4.1
• Example 4.1: A Brief Introduction
• A lt is known that several general anesthetics,
including barbiturates, depress the bronchomotor
response to vagus nerve stimulation (1, 7, 9). B However, the site of this depression has not been
determined. C To determine which site in the vagal
motor pathway to the bronchioles is most sensitive to
depression by barbiturates, D we did experiments in
isolated rings of ferret trachea in which we stimulated
this pathway at four different sites before and after
exposure to barbiturates.
References
• In this section, preliminary reports or abstracts
can be cited, as can closely related, previously
published work.
• However, avoid using the names of
investigators in the Introduction; remember, the
Introduction is intended to hook your reader
into reading the paper.
– Logic: Mentioning others by name (rather than by
contributions) takes the attention away from your
work.
1)the background of
the research question,
2) previous research
in the area
3) problems
should included
with that research
4) what you did to
fix those problems.
Thank you