Speaking
Week 4 NJ Kang
Speaking in ELT Pedagogy in the Context of
Bangladesh: An Overview of Problems and
Recommendations
• Md. Tariqul Huq Lecturer, Department of English, University of
Barisal, Bangladesh
• American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vo1. 2,
No. 1, 2014, 70-75 DOI: 10.11634/232907811402515
• Print
RQ
1. Review some issues and strategies encompassed within the
speaking pedagogy in ELT and tried an application of these
in the context of classroom teaching of speaking skill in
Bangladesh,
2. Background:
Learner’s shyness to speak in English, his ineluctable mental habit of
thinking in Bangla and translating them in English, insufficiency of
need-based English courses, a felt absence of an enhancing
environment for the promotion of this particular skill both inside and
outside the classroom.
To understand whether these already existing theories and methods
relating to speaking skill would be applicable in Bangladesh.
• Ineluctable: inevitable
• Perennial issues
• Paradigmatic limit
Theoretical Perspective of Speaking
Skill-Getting:
Cognition
(Knowledge)
Production
(Pseudo-communication)
Skill-Using:
Interaction
Perception (units, functions, categories)
Abstraction (internalizing rules to functions)
Articulation (practice of sequence of sounds)
(Construction (practice in formulating
communications)
Reception (comprehension of a message)
(Real communication)
Expression (conveying personal meaning)
Hymes’s (1972) theory of
communicative competence
• is a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be
communicatively competent in a speech community.
• Characteristics of communication
• Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
• The primary function of language is to allow interaction and
communication.
• The structure of language reflects its functional and
communicative uses.
• The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and
structural features, but categories of functional and communicative
meaning as exemplified in discourse.
when speaking skill is aimed at the
maximisation of the benefits of the
communicative competence
• it has to take into account both discursive and functional
dimensions of language.
• While the discursive dimension pertains to the social and
cultural knowledge of the language,
• the functional one deals with a set of strategies and devices
that a speaker deploys while facing the contingencies of
speaking such as time- constraint, contextual adjustment,
anticipation, compulsory reciprocation etc.
The theoretical aspect of speaking is
notably underpinned by Bygate (1987, 3)
• Two fundamental components of speech
• production and interaction.
• Oral production, the speaker undergoes the process of either
‘facilitation’ or ‘compensation’, both of which requiring the
speaker to use adjustive tools to the context such as
simplifying structures, formulaic expression, ellipsis, fillers,
hesitation devices or self correction etc
The objectives of the facilitative and
compensatory devices
• of ease to the oral production and make the speaker feel at home
about the task of speech delivery.
•The interactional component within
speaking focuses on the aspect of good communication and
the management of the communication by which the message is
made explicit and understandable to the listener.
• Routines and negotiation.
• The routines aim at shaping the conversation with comprehensive
patterns such as description, comparison, instruction,
• Negotiation introduces choice of the topic or involves the turntaking between the speaker and listener.
Harmer (2001)
• Speaking is sophisticated skill depending on synthesis of certain
necessary factors for successful operation
• The success of speaking, among all other skills, is directly
contingent upon the knowledge of language teaching and the
ability to process information on the spot, which means the
speaker’s social perception and his instant mental reflex to it.
• stresses on the need for the management and negotiation of
language through discreet measures like connected speech,
expressive devices and suggests, thereby, a consistent
programmatic approach in teaching speaking skill in ELT pedagogy.
So teaching speaking
• It can be observed here that what Harmer and Bygate
prescribe for the efficacy of the teaching and learning of the
speaking skill- discursive awareness of language and access
to well-thought out strategies
Canale and Swain’s(1980)
communicative competence• grammatical competence,
• sociolinguistic competence,
• discourse competence,
• strategic competence.
Background of the research
• Shyness of the learner Pronunciation: students are worried about
mistakes Lack of practice and opportunities Limited vocabulary
and syntax Influence of Grammar Translation method: students
are over conscious of Grammar Low or uneven participation
Use of mother tongue
Lack of training environment
Insufficient knowledge of target language.
• Large class : 130 sts in a class
• Short lesson hour : less than 45 min.
• Lack of teacher training and teacher quality: can teach without
teacher certificate
• Examination focused, grammatical competence focused, gtm
highlighted
Suggestions
• Breen and Candlin (1980:99),
• “the teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate
the communication process between all participants and the
various activities and the texts. The second role is to act as an
independent participant within the learning- teaching group”.
• Jeremy Harmer (1991)
• Acting from a script: Playscripts: Communication games:
Instant comment: Unplanned discussion Reaching a
consensus Formal debate: Simulation and role play
Littlewood (1981),
• Two types of activities: “functional communication activities”
and “social interaction activities”.
• Functional communication activities include such tasks as
learners comparing sets of pictures and noting similarities
and differences, working out a likely sequence of events in a
set of pictures, discovering missing features in a map or
pictures; following directions; and solving problems from
shared clues.
• Social interaction activities include conversation and
discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations,
skits, improvisations and debates
An exploratory study of Hong Kong
students’ perceptions of native and nonnative English-speaking teachers in ELT
• Chit Cheung Matthew Sung*
• Department of English, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun, New
Territories, Hong Kong, China (Received 24 April 2013;
accepted 4 October 2013)
RQ
• The perceptions of Hong Kong secondary students towards native Englishspeaking teachers (NESTs) and non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs).
Methods
• Qualitative data were collected by means of semi-structured interviews with
25 students from four secondary schools.
Results
• the participants identified the strengths and weaknesses of both NNESTs and
NESTs.
• NESTs
 Strengths: use of interactive teaching styles and their accurate pronunciation,
 Weaknesses: teaching of grammar and examination skills.
• NNESTs
 Strength: competent in the teaching of grammar and examination strategies,
 Weaknesses: the use of relatively ‘traditional’ teacher-centered teaching methods and
their inaccurate pronunciation.
• Strengths and weaknesses of NESTs and NNESTs are largely complementary.
Background
• Numbers of ES
• native English-speaking teachers (NESTs) are often preferred
over non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs) when
employment decisions are made, and cases of discrimination
against NNESTs have been reported (e.g. Braine, 2010; Clark
& Paran, 2007)
• However, several scholars (e.g. Canagarajah, 1999) have
questioned whether NESTs are ‘intrinsically better qualified’
(Phillipson, 1992, p. 194) than NNESTS.
Literature Review
• The dominance approach and the difference approach.
• In the former approach, the main assumptions are premised
on the paradigm of ‘deficit linguistics,’ whereby NNESTs are
viewed as linguistically handicapped in relation to NESTs.
• The difference approach, on the other hand, emphasizes that
both NNESTs and NESTs are equally capable of being good
language teachers, regardless of their linguistic backgrounds
(Medgyes, 1992)
Butler (2007) NESTs among Korean
elementary students.
• In particular, she found significant differences in the students’
attitudes towards teachers with American-accented English
and Korean-accented English with regard to their ‘goodness
of pronunciation, ’‘confidence in their use of English,’ and
‘focus on fluency vs. accuracy,’ but not regarding ‘general
teaching strategies.’
• It was also found that the American-accented teacher was
perceived to speak English with a better pronunciation and
show more confidence in speaking English.
Pacek (2005)
• explored the perceptions of two groups of ESL students
taught by the same NNEST at a university in the UK.
• Her study showed that the students expressed favorable
views concerning their NNESTs, provided that they can meet
students’ expectations by using appropriate teaching
methods and by displaying personality features favored by
the students.
• Overall, while there have been inconsistent results over
students’ preference for NNESTs, most studies have shown
that most students do not seem to hold a negative attitude
towards their NNESTs or NESTs (cf. Moussu & Llurda, 2008).
The Impact of Multiple Intelligences-Based
Instruction on Developing Speaking Skills of
the Pre-Service Teachers of English
• Ashraf Atta M. S. Salem1 1 PhD in TEFL, Institute of
Educational Studies & Researches, Cairo University, Egypt
Correspondence: Ashraf Atta M. S. Salem, State of Kuwait,
Mahboula, Block 1, Street 131, Building 24, behind Alhashel
Complex. E-mail: sirashrafams@hotmail.com
• Received: June 11, 2013 Accepted: July 2, 2013 Online
Published: August 15, 2013 doi:10.5539/elt.v6n9p53 URL:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n9p53
RQ
• The impact of multiple intelligences-based Instruction on developing speaking
skills of the pre-service teachers of English.
• Therefore, the problem of the current study can be stated in the lack of
speaking skills of the pre-service teachers of English in Hurgada faculty of
Education, South Valley University.
• What is the effectiveness of a Multiple-Intelligence based program in
developing EFL prospective teachers of speaking skills
1) What are the speaking skills required for the fourth-year prospective teachers
of English?
2) What is the actual performance of prospective teachers of English in speaking
skills?
4) What is the Multiple Intelligences profile of the prospective teachers of
English?
5) What are the principles of Multiple-Intelligences based instruction in
developing EFL prospective teachers’ speaking skills?
6) What is the effect of a Multiple Intelligences based program in developing
the speaking skills of the prospective teachers of English?
• Subjects: sixty fourth-year Prospective teachers of English.
• Method:
• A multiple-intelligences based program to enhance the
speaking skills paying a due attention to the individual
differences among students.
• The Quasi-experimental research design was used in the
study as the researcher used the one group pre-posttest to
assess the usefulness of using this approach.
• Results of the study proved the effectiveness of Multipleintelligences based Instruction on developing speaking skills
of the pre-service teachers of English.
Experimental Manipulations and
Intervention
• A Checklist of Students’ Speaking Skills
• Multiple Intelligences Inventory for EFL Young Adults
(McKenzie, 1999)
• The Speaking Pre-Posttest
a. Aim of the test The test was used to develop giving oral
presentations, making requests, making suggestions and giving advice
in the pre and post testing.
b. Description of the test The test was divided into four parts as
follows:
Part (1) Giving oral presentations. Part (2) Making requests. Part (3)
Making Suggestions. Part (4) Giving advice.
The main hypothesis of the study
• is that there are statistically significant differences between
the mean scores of the experimental group in Students'
Performance in Speaking Skills and Subskills. The subskills
included in the study are the oral presentation skills, making
suggestions, making requests, and giving advice.
Literature Review
• MI Theory calls for multi-modal teaching strategies in which
students are given more chances or options while they are
learning and speaking. Multiple intelligences theory based
instruction helps in involving and reaching more and more
students in the learning process because it addresses various
types of intelligences whether these intelligences are
scholastic (verbal/linguistic intelligences and the
logical/mathematical intelligences) or non-scholastic
intelligences ( interpersonal, intrapersonal, and bodilykinesthetic intelligences, etc.).
Speaking
• skills have been found a fundamental skill necessary for a person’s success in life.
Speaking skills cover a wide range, from engaging in simple conversation to formal
public speaking.
• is the target skill in both first and foreign languages. (EI-Basel, 2008:77).
• skills play a vital role in communication process. (Dorgham, 2011:1).
• skill, is a complicated skill as it involves many processes or operations working
together.(Sayed, 2005:42)
• requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such
as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also they
understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language (Sociolinguistic
competence). (Al-Khuli, 2000:4),
• is a complicated mental process and a productive skill.” (Ibrahim, 2007:1)
• is not a single skill, rather speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning
that involves producing, receiving and processing information (Brown, 2001:9)
• include two categories; accuracy and fluency (Harmer, 2001:15)
To be proficient speakers
• learners need to acquire the way native speakers use the
language in the context of structured interpersonal
exchange, and to use the language appropriately in social
interactions which are an ability that should be mastered to
achieve effective oral communication.
• Social interactions include verbal communication,
paralinguistic elements of speech such as pitch, stress, and
intonation, and nonlinguistic elements of speech such as
gesture, body language posture and facial expression that
may accompany speech or convey messages.
The current study defines
• speaking as “ an interactive process that includes certain skills
such as giving oral presentation, making suggestions, making
requests and giving advices that foster oral fluency of the
prospective teachers of English through the use of at least
five types of intelligences ”
The effect of Drama on students’ anxiety
of speaking English
Lee, Seoyeon
Thesis for the Degree of Master, Sookmyung universtiy
RQ
• . How do the drama activities affect students’ anxiety level in
speaking in English?
• 2. What are the factors that affect students' anxiety in
speaking in English during the drama activities?
• Subjects
• 27 female undergraduate students enrolled in the drama
class at a university located in Seoul
• Methods
• survey, observations, reflective journals and interviews,
Literature Review
• 2.2 Anxiety and Language
• Definition and types of Anxiety
• “a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly
associated with an object” (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p.
3).
• anxiety and fear are both “unpleasant emotional reactions to the
stimulus conditions perceived as threatening,”
• fear is usually derived from a “real, objective danger in the
external environment” while the threatening stimulus of anxiety
may not be known. (Speiberger 1976, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 13)
Foreign language anxiety
• language anxiety is distinct from any other type of anxiety
and is not merely a composite of other anxieties (Horwitz,
Horwitz, &
• Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) (Horwitz,
Horwitz, and Cope1986): 33 question items
• the three components of foreign language anxiety:
communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of
negative evaluation (Ganschow& Sparks, 1996). Cope, 1986;
MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991b).
communication apprehension
• is an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either
real or anticipated communication with other persons.
• Oral communication consists of two components: listening
and speaking. Speaking is anxiety-provoking in foreign
language activities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c). Daly (1991)
and Young (1986) find that most students are particularly
anxious when they have to speak a foreign language in front
of their class. As to listening, it is a problem for language
learners, too. Foreign language learners usually have difficulty
understanding others.
Test anxiety
• “the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate
performance in an evaluative situation.” (Sarason 1984).
• Test anxiety occurs when students have poor performance in the previous
tests. (Chan & Wu, 2000).
• Test-anxious students may have false beliefs in language learning. (Horwitz,
Horwitz, & Cope, 1986).
• Young (1991) claims test anxiety would affect foreign language learners with
low levels of oral proficiency more than those with high levels of proficiency.
• On the other hand, learners experience more language anxiety in highly
evaluative situations. Researchers find that test anxiety could be significantly
higher under an official and unfamiliar condition (Daly, 1991; Young, 1991).
• an oral test is more complicated because it provokes both test anxiety and
oral communication apprehension. (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986),
• so test-anxious learners will doubtlessly suffer stress and anxiety frequently.
Positive findings of effect of drama on
speaking anxiety
Kao (1994) process-oriented drama
23 Taiwanese university students who were learning English.
learners gained more confidence in speaking English because the drama-based activities encouraged them to
convey their thoughts in an natural way. The learners who felt “afraid” of speaking in the target language prior to
the commencement of the course became more confident after participating in the drama program.
Other learners with very low self-esteem and lower language proficiency seemed to have benefited less from the
course.
Coleman (2005) adolescent Korean English learners.
Participants ranked the statement “feel more relaxed speaking English” the highest (M = 5.07).
learners ranked the statement “manages anxiety and apprehension” the lowest (M = 2.12).
factors other than the drama instruction might have influenced results. For example, it could be that learners'
age affected the results.
Piazzoli (2011) process-oriented drama on L2 learners' anxiety levels.
Six process-oriented drama workshops to twelve advanced learners of Italian enrolled in a third-year course at a
university in Brisbane, Australia.
The workshops included a reflection on Italian socio-cultural issues through discussion, improvisations, and the
presentation of formulaic language structures. At the end of each workshop, a forum was provided for learners
to reflect on intercultural issues.
Fear of negative evaluation
• ‘apprehension about others’ evaluations, distress over their negative evaluations, and
the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively” (Watson, & Friend,
1969).
• Although it is similar to test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation is broader in scope
because it is not restricted to test-taking situations.
• It may take place in any social, evaluative situation such as interviewing for a job or
speaking in foreign language class.
• MacIntyre and Gardner (1991d) propose that fear of negative evaluation is closely
related to communication apprehension. When students are unsure of what they are
saying, fear of negative evaluation occurs and they may doubt about their ability to
make a proper impression.
• In a foreign language context, negative evaluation derives mainly from both teachers
and their peers because foreign languages require continual evaluation by the teacher
and anxious students may also be intensely susceptible to the evaluations of their
peers.
• Students with fear of negative evaluation might adopt the action of avoidance.
(Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986).
Impacts of foreign language anxiety on
learning
• play a vital role in foreign language learning performance.
• language anxiety stands high among the factors having
influences over language learning no matter that what
learning setting is (Oxford 1999).
Affective Filter Hypothesis
(Krashen 1982)
• only the affective optimal conditions yield language acquisition.
• The affective conditions stated here are motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety.
• Three stages of language learning (Tobias 1986): input; processing; and output
(see Figure 2.1)
• The input stage is associated with the learners’ first experience with a given
stimulus at a given time and is said to be the initial representations of the
items in memory. In this sense, internal representations are made, and then
attention, concentration and encoding occur when encountering external
stimuli.
• The processing stage relates to the performance of cognitive operations on
the subject matters, including organization, storage, and assimilation of the
material. So, this stage is concerned with unseen, internal manipulations of
items from the input stage.
• For the output stage, it involves the production of material previously learned.
Foreign language anxiety and speaking
• High levels of anxiety led to low speaking performance and attitudes (Horwitz
et al. 1986; MacIntyre and Gardner 1991; Phillips 1992; McIntyre & Charos
1995).
• Wilson (2006) examined the relationships of overall proficiency of English oral
performance, variables in an association with overall proficiency, oral test
performance, and foreign language anxiety of a group of tertiary students.
The study revealed that there was a statistically significant and negative
relationship between language anxiety and oral test grades using two oral
performance criteria.
• Highly anxious group of students tended to perform oral test grades
significantly more poorly than those with moderate and low anxiety. Obviously,
high anxiety led to overall poor English proficiency.
• Woodrow (2006) studied the debilitating impacts of second language anxiety
on oral performance of advanced English for academic purposes (EAP)
students studying on intensive EAP courses prior to entering Australian
universities.
six potential sources of foreign language
classroom anxiety (Young 1991)
• He postulates that language anxiety is caused by (a) personal
and interpersonal anxiety; (b) learners‟ beliefs about language
learning; (c) instructors‟ beliefs about language teaching; (d)
instructor-learner interactions; (e) classroom procedures; and
(f) language testing. These sources of language anxiety are
interrelated.
Possible factors that influence anxiety
• speak in front of their friends: a fear of being laughed at,
making fools of themselves, and being embarrassed (Price 1991).
• oral class presentation is found to be the activity that triggers
the most anxiety for the first two years of NA Spanish classes at
the University of California, Irvine (Koch and Terrell 1991)
• an inability to comprehend what is being taught is a cause of a
considerable anxiety (Von Wörde 2003) That is to say, anxiety
might be provoked by an inability to listen to a teacher speaking
too fast and insisting using English at all times in the class.
Students, therefore, cannot keep up during class and they then
carry this difficulty over into the homework assignments. These
factors, consequently, make students become tense because they
cannot clearly perceive what has been taught
Experiments
Role plays
• Mime
• Still image
• Scripted role play
• Play scripts
• Process drama
• Juxtaposition
• One-word drama
• Simulation
• Debating
Homework
• Read and summarize.
• Your research questions and methods, subjects.