CHAPTER 9
Parties in the Government
 The party-in-government must operate within a constitutional
order that was designed to make coordinated and
cooperative action difficult

Federalism divides the parties geographically, and
separation of powers divides the parties functionally

Within America’s separation-of-powers system, there exists
exists a “separation of party organizations” into a presidential
party and a congressional party at the national level, and
correspondingly at the state level

Despite the diffuseness, American parties tend to be
executive-centered coalitions, as the president is the
only party leader with a truly national constituency
The President and the National Party

The president needs to assert dominance over his
party’s organizational structure, particularly the
national committee, as the most inclusive party
organization in the country

Although he has no formal role in the national
committee, the president’s informal influence over
the selection of the national chair is nearly total

National parties have lost both their influence over
administration appointments and their presidential
campaign roles, as the tendency of the president to
build a personal organization has increased
Presidential Nominations and the Building of
Governing Coalitions

The pattern of presidential dominance over the
party is a reflection of the changed process of
coalition building involved in gaining presidential
nominations

Because of this, presidential leadership of the
government is made more difficult, since the
president no longer depends on building coalitions
with party leaders during the nomination process

The difficult leadership position in which an
American president finds himself upon entering the
White House is quite different from that of most
chief executives in other Western-style democracies,
The Party, the President, and Congress

Much of what a president can accomplish in terms of
policy making requires the cooperation of the
Congress, and particularly of party colleagues

Since the president and members of Congress are
elected completely independently of each other,
there are no mutual obligations between the two

An institutional source of tension is the fact that
presidents have term limits, whereas legislators
think in terms of lifetime careers in Congress

Presidential leadership of Congress is also made
more difficult because of the separation-of-powers
system, enabling divided government (Table 9.1)
Table 9.1. Single-Party versus Divided Control of
the National Government, 1955-2008
Party
Controlling
Congress
Years
Condition
Party of
President
Party
Controlling
Congress
Years
Condition
Party of
President
1955-56
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1983-84
Divided
Republican
Split
1957-58
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1985-86
Divided
Republican
Split
1959-60
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1987-88
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1961-62
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
1989-90
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1963-64
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
1991-92
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1965-66
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
1993-94
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
1967-68
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
1995-96
Divided
Democrat
Republicans
1969-70
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1997-98
Divided
Democrat
Republicans
1971-72
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1999-00
Divided
Democrat
Republicans
1973-74
Divided
Republican
Democrats
2001-02
Divided
Republican
Split*
1975-76
Divided
Republican
Democrats
2003-04
Unified
Republican
Republicans
1977-78
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
2004-05
Unified
Republican
Republicans
1979-80
Unified
Democrat
Democrats
2006-08
Divided
Republican
Democrats
1981-82
Divided
Republican
Split
* Republicans briefly controlled the Senate in 2001, until Senator James Jeffords switched from Republican to
independent on June 5, 2001.
Party Loyalty as a Basis for PresidentialCongressional Cooperation

Partisanship does provide a basis for cooperation
and for keeping inevitable conflicts within bounds

Studies of roll call voting in Congress have found
that the best single predictor of the way members of
Congress will vote is their party affiliation

Therefore, the party membership that the president
shares with congressional colleagues is of great
importance in promoting cooperation (Table 9.2)

In seeking to influence the Congress, presidents
tend to work closely with the elected party
leadership of their party in the House and Senate,
but also with members of the opposition party
Table 9.2. Average Level of Congressional Support
for the President’s Position, 1954-2005 (percent)
Members of the
President’s Party
Members of the
Opposition Party
Year
President
Party
House
Senate
Party
House
Senate
1954–60
Eisenhower
Rep.
68
80
Dem.
54
52
1961–63
Kennedy
Dem.
83
75
Rep.
41
47
1964–68
Johnson
Dem.
81
71
Rep.
49
56
1969–74
Nixon
Rep.
73
73
Dem.
53
50
1974–76
Ford
Rep.
65
72
Dem.
41
48
1977–80
Carter
Dem.
69
74
Rep.
42
52
1981–88
Reagan
Rep.
68
79
Dem.
33
44
1989–92
Bush
Rep.
69
77
Dem.
30
42
1993–00
Clinton
Dem.
76
86
Rep.
32
40
2001-05
Bush
Rep.
84
91
Dem.
29
57
Sources: Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann, and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999–2000
(Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 2000), pp. 198–199; Congressional Quarterly Weekly, Jan. 6, 2001, p. 61. Used by
permission.
Does United or Divided Party Control of Government
Really Make a Difference in Lawmaking?

Studies have shown that there has been no great
difference in the amount of major initiatives passed
during united versus divided control of government

The basic reason for this unexpected finding is that
lawmaking is affected by a variety of forces over
and above party control of government, such as
difficulties inherent in the legislative process

Others argue that the apparent similarities in the
productivity of united and divided government is a
result of party leaders striving to shape legislative
proposals for their publicity value rather than their
likelihood of enactment
The Party, the President, and the
Executive Branch

For a president to influence the direction of national
policy, he must also exert influence within the
executive branch, where policy is implemented

Each agency and department has a separate
congressionally enacted statute governing its
organizational structure, policies, and budget

Presidential leadership of the executive branch has
become more difficult because the policy concerns
of government have become more complex,
involving more organized interests who wish to
protect their specific policy interests
The Party, the President, and the Judiciary

Whereas the president can exert direct influence
over the Congress and the executive branch, party
and presidential influences over the judiciary are
more indirect – through appointing federal judges

Presidents normally select about 90% of their
judicial nominees from within the ranks of their
party

In selecting nominees for the Supreme Court, the
president has substantially more leeway than in
making appointments to the federal district courts or
the courts of appeals

Because of the Supreme Court’s potential to affect
controversial issues, Court appointments often
Parties in Congress

Because the congressional party organizations
cannot guarantee members safe seats in return for
loyalty on votes, members frequently assume an
independent orientation when voting on the floor

Although electoral forces and institutional
arrangements operate to frustrate party influence
within Congress, evidence of partisanship persists

The realignment in the South led to a more cohesive
and liberal Democratic party in Congress (Figure 9.1)

Another factor contributing to heightened partisanship
is the narrow margins by which the parties have
controlled the House and Senate
Moderate
1879
1883
1887
1891
1895
1899
1903
1907
1911
1915
1919
1923
1927
1931
1935
1939
1943
1947
1951
1955
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
Liberal
Ideology of Delegation
Conservative
Figure 9.1. Mean Ideology of Roll Call Voting by
Republicans and Northern and Southern Democrats in
the House of Representatives, 1879-2003
Republican Party
Northern Democrats
Source: Keith T. Poole, University of California at San Diego, http://voteview.com.
Southern Democrats
Evidence of Partisanship

Congress is organized on a highly partisan basis,
where members of the majority party hold the key
leadership posts, which in turn enables them to
maintain procedural control of the Congress

The party leadership is also important as a source of
needed information, such as the expected outcome
of a roll call, or the position of the president

The social contacts of members of Congress tend to
be within their own party, and partisanship is
encouraged because of the ideological bonds that
exist among party members in Congress

The extent of partisanship in Congress may be seen
in member voting patterns and roll calls (Figure 9.2)
Figure 9.2. Party Votes in Congress, 1879-2004
100%
Percent of All Roll Calls
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
0%
1879
1883
1887
1891
1895
1899
1903
1907
1911
1915
1919
1923
1927
1931
1935
1939
1943
1947
1951
1955
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
10%
House
Senate
Source: Keith T. Poole, University of California at San Diego, http://voteview.com.
Evidence of Partisanship (continued)

The extent of partisanship in Congress can also be
explored by examining the degree of party unity on
those roll calls that pit a majority of Democrats
against a majority of Republicans
(Figure 9.3 and 9.4)
Figure 9.3. Party Unity in the House of
Representatives, 1879-2004
Percent Voting With Own Party
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
50%
1879
1883
1887
1891
1895
1899
1903
1907
1911
1915
1919
1923
1927
1931
1935
1939
1943
1947
1951
1955
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
55%
Republicans
Democrats
Source: Keith T. Poole, University of California at San Diego, http://voteview.com.
Figure 9.4. Party Unity in the Senate, 1879-2004
100%
Percent Voting With Own Party
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
50%
1879
1883
1887
1891
1895
1899
1903
1907
1911
1915
1919
1923
1927
1931
1935
1939
1943
1947
1951
1955
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
55%
Republicans
Democrats
Source: Keith T. Poole, University of California at San Diego, http://voteview.com.
Evidence of Partisanship (continued)

The extent of partisanship in Congress can also be
explored by examining the degree of party unity on
those roll calls that pit a majority of Democrats
against a majority of Republicans
(Figure 9.3 and 9.4)

However, internal cleavages within the congressional
parties mean that legislative majorities must
frequently be forged with bipartisan coalitions

One of the most influential and enduring cross-party
coalitions in the postwar years was the so-called
conservative coalition of Republicans and
conservative southern Democrats (Figure 9.5)
Figure 9.5. The Conservative Coalition: Percent of Roll
Calls on Which Republicans and Southern Democrats
Voted Against Northern Democrats, 1960-1998
Percent of All Roll Calls
60
50
40
30
20
0
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
10
House
Senate
Note: The percentage of all roll call votes in the House or Senate on which a majority of voting southern Democrats and a majority
of voting Republicans opposed a stand taken by a majority of northern Democrats.
Sources: Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann, and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999–2000 (Washington,
D.C.: AEI Press, 2000), p. 204. Used by permission.
Party Organization in the House

Because of its large size (435 members), the House
has rules that strictly regulate the processing of
legislation

These rules severely limit the power of the minority
party and individual members, whereas the majority
party is in a position to work its will on most issues

The procedural rules strengthen the position of the
party leaders, especially the Speaker and majority
floor leader, who tend to dominate the setting of the
House agenda
Party Organization in the House
The Speaker of the House

The Speaker is the most prominent and influential
member of the House, who serves both as its
preceding officer and the leader of the majority party

Since the 1970s the Speaker has assumed a more
important role in the House, among others having
the power to make committee assignments and
control the flow of legislation to the floor

Despite their increasing power, all Speakers must
cope with the fact that their power is only as great as
their colleagues will permit
Party Organization in the House
Newt Gingrich and the Republican Revolution

In 1994, the Republicans took control of both
chambers of Congress for the first time in 40 years

Several factors contributed to giving Republican
Speaker Newt Gingrich unprecedented influence:
- unusually polarized and cohesive congressional parties
- a narrow majority in the House provided incentive to appeal
to majority party members to stay united
- Gingrich was credited by most House Republicans as being
responsible for the party’s return to power
- Gingrich displayed necessary personal leadership skills
Party Organization in the House
The Floor Leaders

Within the majority party, the Speaker’s principal
associate is the floor leader, who normally acts as the
key party spokesperson and strategist on the floor

With the Speaker, the floor leader helps to plan the
legislative schedule of the House, and carries major
responsibilities for persuading his party colleagues to
support party leadership positions on House votes

The minority floor leader is the highest-ranking
position within his party, among others responsible
for developing legislative strategies, and building
bridges to dissident members of the opposition
Party Organization in the House
The Whips

Both parties have assistant leaders known as whips,
whose main duty is to encourage party discipline

The whips do not have the formal authority to “whip”
their colleagues into line, but are rather information
brokers, responsible for collecting and disseminating
information to and from the rank-and-file

To the party leaders, whips report the sentiments of
members on pieces of legislation by making advance
nose counts to determine the likelihood for success
of a leadership position on the floor
Party Organization in the House
The Policy Committees and Steering Committees

Party policy committees function as agencies to
gauge party sentiments and to identify the party
position on issues before they come to a vote

Policy committee endorsement of a position on a bill
tends to strengthen the leadership’s position in
winning party members’ support for their viewpoint

Each party has a steering committee, which is
responsible for making committee assignments for
party members
Party Organization in the House
Party Caucuses and Conferences

Party caucuses or conferences include all the
members of the party in a chamber

Their most important work is done at the beginning
of a new Congress when they meet to organize their
parties in the House, e.g. to elect party leaders and
to adopt party rules

Party caucuses are held on an almost weekly basis
throughout a congressional session to allow
members to express their sentiments on issues
facing the House and to rally partisan support for
leadership positions on key votes
Party Organization in the House
Informal Party Groups

In addition to the regular party organizational
structure described above, there are also a series of
informal party groups that can work both to reinforce
party unity and to cause fragmentation

Examples of party groups include the state party
delegations, class clubs, and ideologically oriented
groups that seek to pressure their parties’ leadership
to adopt policies compatible with the groups’ views
Party Organization in the Senate
The Floor Leaders

The key leaders of the Senate are the floor leaders

The majority party floor leader is responsible for the
Senate schedule, and also acts as his party’s chief
spokesperson and legislative strategist

The minority floor leader serves his party in a similar
capacity, only does not have any responsibility for
developing the Schedule for Senate business

Senate floor leaders are also responsible for steering
presidential programs through the Senate when their
party controls the presidency
Party Organization in the Senate
The Committees on Committees and the Conferences

Each party has a committee on committees (called
the Steering Committee in the Democratic Party) to
handle member committee assignments

Compared to the House, a larger share of Senate
issues are resolved on the floor than in committee,
and as a result committee assignments are
somewhat less important

The party conferences in the Senate are used
primarily to organize the parties at the beginning of
each new Congress, e.g. to elect leadership and
adopt party rules
Congressional Parties and
National Party Organizations
The congressional parties operate with substantial
autonomy from their national committees
 The national committee’s separation from the
congressional parties is also revealed by the
existence in both parties of autonomous House and
Senate campaign committees

Conscious that their constituency is members of the
House and Senate, these seek to elect
representatives and senators, leaving presidential
election politics and aid to state candidates to the
national committees
 Table 9.4. presents the five House incumbents
receiving the most support from the congressional
campaign committees and their party unity scores

Table 9.4. Party Unity Scores for House Incumbents
Receiving Most Coordinated Expenditures from
Congressional Campaign Committees
Democrats
Republicans
Party
Unity
Score
Amount
Member
Party
Unity
Score
Amount
Stephanie
Herseth (S.D.)
76.2%
$112,408
Phil Crane (Ill.)
98.7%
$411,792
Jim Marshall
(Ga.)
71.2%
$92,544
Heather Wilson
(N.M.)
85.9%
$73,566
Martin Frost
(Tex.)
87.2%
$74,121
Pete Session
(Tex.)
99.2%
$73,092
Chet Edwards
(N.C.)
75.0%
$73,924
Bob Beauprez
(Colo.)
97.2%
$72,529
Max Sandlin
(Tex.)
77.0%
$72,935
Jon Porter
(Nev.)
89.4%
$72,500
House
Republican
Average
93.7%
Member
House
Democratic
Average
90.5%
Parties and Policy in the Congress

Political parties are the most inclusive institutions
within the Congress, thus constituting the strongest
integrating and centralizing influence in Congress

Electoral factors have helped to create congressional
parties that are more internally united and distinct in
their policy orientations than before

The centralizing influence of the parties is weakened
by the fact that most representatives and senators
are “independent political entrepreneurs”

Congressional party leaders recognize their
colleagues’ need for substantial freedom in making
policy decisions