Basic Sentence Elements:
Subjects and Predicates
• A sentence is an independent clause. It
contains a subject and a predicate and
expresses a complete thought.
– Examples:
Subject
Dogs
Susie
The morning sun
Predicate
bite.
is a prankster.
shines brightly.
Basic Sentence Elements:
Phrases
• A phrase is a group of words that does not
contain a subject or predicate.
– Examples:
• To listen carefully.
• Rustling their papers and snapping their notebooks
closed.
Basic Sentence Elements:
Dependent Clauses
• A dependent clause is a group of words that
cannot stand alone as a complete thought.
It needs the rest of the sentence to be
complete.
– Examples:
• Because I was hungry. [This is not a complete
thought. ]
• Because I was hungry, I made myself a sandwich.
[Now it is a complete thought because it is attached
to an independent clause.]
Grammar: Fragments
• A fragment is is an incomplete sentence. It may lack a subject or a
verb, or it may be a dependent clause. Revise fragments by adding a
subject or a verb or by combining the fragment with the previous (or
following) sentence.
• Examples:
– I gained weight. Because I ate too much. [The second group of
words is a fragment. It needs to be attached to the first
sentence:
» I gained weight because I ate too much.
– When my car didn’t start. I called the mechanic. [This first
group of words is a fragment. It needs to be connected to the
second part:
» When my car didn’t start, I called the mechanic.
Grammar: Comma Splices
• A comma splice occurs when you
incorrectly join two independent clauses
with a comma.
– Examples:
I was driving very fast, I got a speeding ticket.
To correct, and a coordinating conjunction:
I was driving very fast, so I got a speeding ticket.
You may also insert a period:
I was driving very fast. I got a speeding ticket.
Grammar: Run On Sentences
• A run on or fused sentence occurs when
you join two independent clauses without
any punctuation.
– Examples:
• My boyfriend broke up with me my heart was broken.
– To correct, insert a period between the two independent clauses :
• My boyfriend broke up with me. My heart was broken.
– You could also insert a comma and a coordinating conjunction :
• My boyfriend broke up with me, and my heart was broken.
Coordination
• You can join two independent clauses
using a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Use the acronym “boyfans” to help you remember them!
but or yet for and nor
so
Insert a comma between the two independent clauses
and add a coordinating conjunction.
Examples:
It was late, so I decided to take the bus.
The dog barked all night, but the neighbors didn’t
complain.
Subordination
An independent clause can be joined to a dependent clause with a
subordinating conjunction. If the dependent clause comes at the
beginning of the sentence, it is followed by a comma.
•
Example:
Dependent clause:
When you father arrives.
Independent clause: We will eat dinner.
When your father arrives, we will eat dinner.
If the dependent clause follows the independent clause, do not add a
comma.
Example:
We will eat dinner when your father arrives.
Subordination: Subordinating
Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
after
because
since
when(ever)
although
before
unless
whereas
as (if)
if
until
while
Examples:
After the dance, we got something to eat at McDonalds.
We can’t leave for the trip until Sarah arrives.
While I was waiting for the call, I filed my nails.
Don’t ride in the car unless you are wearing your seatbelt.
Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb placed between two independent clauses can help
to clarify the relationship between the two clauses.
Conjunctive Adverbs
consequently
in fact
nevertheless
furthermore
indeed
then
however
moreover
therefore
Examples:
She was very angry; therefore, she hit him.
She was very angry; however, she did not hit him.
*Notice that the semicolon separates the two independent clauses. It
is placed before the conjunctive adverb. The conjunctive adverb is
followed by a comma.
Commas: Introductory Elements
Use commas to set off introductory elements:
Examples:
To save money, I often use coupons when I shop.
Of course, I need to plan ahead.
When I read the paper, I clip out all the store
coupons.
Before I go to the store, I check to see what is on
sale that day.
Commas: Items in a Series
Use commas to separate items in a series.
Use a comma before the and to avoid
confusion.
Examples:
She rented a house with a stove, microwave,
refrigerator with an icemaker, and a
garbage disposal. [Leaving out the comma
before and could cause confusion.]
Commas: Restrictive &
Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Nonrestrictive modifiers should be separated from the
sentence by commas. Always test the sentence. If the
modifier can be removed from the sentence without
changing the meaning, put commas before and after it.
Examples:
Linda, my best friend, loves to talk. [The phrase “my best
friend” is a nonrestrictive modifier. Taking it out doesn’t
change the meaning of the sentence.]
The woman in the red dress is my best friend. [The phrase “in
the red dress” is a restrictive modifier. It explains which
woman is “my best friend.”]
Commas: Coordinate Adjectives
Use a comma to separate equal adjectives. To test to see if
you need a comma, try reversing the order of the
adjectives. Then try adding and between the adjectives.
If the sentence still makes sense, insert a comma
between the two adjectives.
Examples:
It was a long, boring class. [This could also be written as, “It
was a long and boring class.”]
I put studded snow tires on my new car. [This could not be
written as, “I put snow studded tires on my new car.” So
don’t add the comma between the two adjectives.]
Commas: Quotation Marks
Use a comma to set off a direct quotation
dialogue.
Examples:
My son yelled, “Where are the chips?”
According to Postman, “Schools are not now
and have never been largely about getting
information to children.”
Commas: Dates, Addresses, and
Titles
Use commas to set off dates, addresses, and
degrees/titles.
Examples:
On February 2, 2000, they celebrated Groundhog’s
Day in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania.
Don’t forget to stop in DuBois, Pennsylvania, when
traveling on Interstate 80.
Jayne Magee, Ph.D., is my English professor.
Gary Magee, D.C., is the best chiropractor in the area.
Commas: Appositives:
• Appositives rename the noun that precedes
it and are set off with commas.
• Example:
• My uncle, James Brown, works for Kodak.
• The professor who teaches English Comp. 1,
Dr. Jayne Magee, is very nice.
Commas: Showing contrast
• When you show contrast, use a comma.
• Example: I bought the green blouse, not the
blue one.
Commas: Questions
• Use commas to set off a question at the end
of a sentence.
• Example:
• I think Tom Cruise is really cute, don’t you?
Commas: Direct Address
• Set off a person’s name with a comma when you
address them by name in a sentence.
• Leo, aren’t you going to class today?
• What are you wearing to the party, Marge?
• I think you know, Jan, how much you mean to me.
Unnecessary Commas
Unnecessary Commas:
Do not use a comma to separate a subject and a verb.
Incorrect:
Correct:
My youngest son, goes to college in New York City.
My youngest son goes to college in New York City.
Do not use a comma to separate compound subjects or predicates.
Incorrect:
The mother, and the daughter are both in the same English
class.
Correct:
The mother and the daughter are both in the same English
class.
Incorrect:
Since it was Sunday, I stayed in bed all day, and watched TV.
Correct:
Since it was Sunday, I stayed in bed all day and watched TV.
Semicolons: Independent
Clauses
Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses. Each clause could
stand alone as a complete sentence; however, because they are
closely related, you may use a semicolon.
Examples:
I love Italian food; lasagna is my favorite dish.
[This could also be written as follows:
I love Italian food. Lasagna is my favorite dish.]
*Note: This is when many people make the mistake of inserting a
comma instead of a semicolon. If you do this, you are creating a
“comma splice,” which is an error.
Incorrect: I love Italian food, lasagna is my favorite dish.
Semicolons: Items in a Series
Use a semicolon to separate items in a series
that already contain commas.
Examples:
I have lived in Phoenix, Arizona; San Diego,
California; and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
I introduced my boyfriend to David, my
brother; Leslie, my sister-in-law; and Travis,
my nephew.
Colons
Use a colon [:] to introduce a list or an explanation.
The are often used in titles, too.
Examples:
I brought the following dishes to the dinner party:
fried chicken, potato salad, and chocolate cake.
There is only one way to lose weight: eat less and
exercise more!
Think and Grow Rich: Ten Easy Lessons is the best
book I have read all year.
Apostrophes: Possession
Use an apostrophe [‘] to show possession.
Examples:
I borrowed my sister’s car.
For plural nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe after the
plural noun.
The crowd booed the Indians’ star pitcher.
With multiple nouns, show joint possession by adding the
apostrophe only to the last of the nouns.
We were invited to Chad and Susan’s wedding.
Apostrophes with Possessives
• For plural nouns not ending in –s, use ‘s
• Example: six men’s coats
• For joint ownership by two or more nouns, add ‘s after the
last noun in the group:
• Example: Lisa and Mandy’s house. [Lisa and Mandy share
one house.]
• For individual ownership when several nouns are used,
add ‘s after each noun:
• Example: Lisa’s and Mandy’s houses [ There are two
houses. Lisa owns one house, and Mandy owns the other
house.]
Apostrophes: Pronouns
Pronouns never take apostrophes to show possession
because they have their own possessive forms:
its his her hers your yours
their theirs our ours my mine whose
Don’t confuse its (which is possessive) and it’s (which is a
contraction of it is.]
Lakeland has its policy on plagiarism.
When you always turn your work in late, it’s hard to get a
good grade in the course.
Apostrophes: Contractions
Use an apostrophe to indicate a contraction or omitted
letters.
Examples:
I’m not the one who called you on the phone.
Be careful not to confuse there, their, and they’re!
They’re my cousins. [contraction of they are ]
The house is over there. [indicates a place or direction]
It is their right to protest. [a possessive pronoun]
Who’s=who is Who’s going to run for president.
Whose= Whose umbrella is it?
the 1990s [plural with no apostrophe]= ‘90s [omitted letters]
Plurals and Possessives
• Don’t confuse plurals and possessives.
• Example:
• Incorrect: The Jackson’s went to Florida.
• Jacksons is plural, not possessive.
Example: The house belonged to the
Jacksons.
It was the Jacksons’ house.
Hint: Using Apostrophes
• 1. When you aren’t sure if you need the apostrophe, turn
the phrase into an “of the “ phrase:
• The day’s effort= the effort of the day
• 2. When you aren’t sure whether the word is plural or not,
remember this sequence:
• First, write the word.
• Then add the plural.
• Then add the possessive marker.
• Examples:
• Cup ‘s
the cup’s handle
• Cups ‘
the cups’ handles
HYPHENS TO FORM COMPOUND
WORDS
Use hyphens to form compound words.
Hyphens are used in fractions and numbers
from twenty-one to ninety-nine. If in doubt,
look the word up in a standard dictionary.
• mother-in-law thirty-six
• Clear-cut
two-thirds
HYPHENS TO JOIN WORD UNITS
Use the hyphen to join two or more words that work together
and serve as a single descriptive word before a noun.
When the words come after the noun, they are NOT
hyphenated!!! Don’t use hyphens with –ly modifiers.
The office needs up-to-date furniture.
The office needs furniture that was up to date.
The repair involved a six-inch pipe.
The repair involved a pipe that was six inches long.
They brought along their nine-year-old son.
They brought along their son, who was nine years old.
HYPENS TO JOIN PREFIXES,
SUFFIXES, AND LETTERS TO A WORD
Use hyphens between words and the prefixes
self-, all-, and ex-. For other prefixes such
as anti-, non-, pro-, and co-, use the
dictionary as a guide.
co-director self-supporting anti-abortion
President-elect pro-American T-shirt
D-day
all-encompassing
HYPENS TO AVOID CONFUSION
Use the hyphen to avoid double vowels and triple
consonants:
anti-intellectual (not antiintellectual)
bell-like (not belllike)
Use the hyphen to avoid confusion between words
that are spelled alike but have different
meanings:
Re-creation (making again) vs. recreation (fun)
Re-cover (to cover again) vs. recover (regain health
Co-op ( something owned jointly) vs. coop (cage)
Dashes at the beginning or End of
a sentence
• Use the dash at the beginning or end of a
sentence to set off an explanation.
• Example: Fame, fortune, and a Ferrari—
these were his goals in life.
• Her acting gave an extra touch of humor to
the play—some badly needed pizzazz.
Dashes to Mark an Interruption
• Use the dash as an interrupter to mark a
sudden break in thought, an abrupt change
or surprise, or a deliberate pause.
• Example: According to her way of looking at
things—but not mine—this was a
worthwhile cause.
Dashes to Set Off a Phrase
Containing a Comma
• When a phrase or clause already has a
comma in it, you can use dashes to set off
the whole word group.
• Example: Hildy always finds interesting
restaurants—such as Lettuce Eat, that
health food place, and Ho Ming’s Pizza
Parlor—to go to after a concert.
PARENTHESES TO SET OFF
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
Use parentheses to enclose supplementary
or les important material that you include
as further explanation or added detail or
examples:
The officers of the fraternity (the ones
elected last month) called a meeting just
before the dance to remind everyone of the
new alcohol regulations.
Slashes to Mark the End of a Line
of Poetry
• When you quote two or three lines of poetry within a
paragraph, indicate the end of each line with a slash (with
a space before and after the slash). Include the original
punctuation and capitalization of the poem. Don’t use the
slash if you indent and quote more than three lines of
poetry.
• Example: In his poem “Mending Wall,” Robert Frost writes,
“Something there is that doesn’t love a wall, / That sends
the frozen-ground-swell under it.”
Slashes to Indicate Acceptable
Alternatives
• Use the slash, with no space before or after
it, to indicate the either of the two terms
can apply.
• Examples:
• pass/fail and/or
yes/no
PARENTHESES TO ENCLOSE FIGURES
FOR LETTERS
Use parentheses to enclose figures or letters
that specify items in a series in a sentence
or paragraph:
The three major items on the agenda were (1)
where to hold the party, (2) who to invite,
and (3) whether or not to serve alcohol.
ELLIPIS (Omitted Words)
Use an ellipsis (three spaced dots) to indicate that you are
leaving out words or parts of a sentence from material
you are quoting. If you are omitting a whole sentence or
paragraph, add a fourth period with no space after the last
word preceding the ellipsis:
Original:
According to William Bennett, “Legalization of drugs will give
us the worst of both worlds: millions of new drug users
and a thriving criminal black market” (225).
Bennett claims that legalizing drugs will result in
“ . . . a thriving criminal black market” (225).
Parenthetical Citations
• Author’s name given in the lead in:
• According to Freud, “A dream is the
fulfillment of a wish” (154).
• Author’s name not given in the lead in:
• One famous psychiatrist tells us that “a
dream is the fulfillment of a wish” (Freud
154).
Plagiarism
• 1. Using the exact words of someone without putting
quotation marks around them.
• 2. Just rearranging the words of your source without
quoting word for word and using quotation marks.
• 2. Changing the words of your source into your own words
by paraphrasing or summarizing and not citing the source
with a lead in and parenthetical citation.
• Stating the ideas or research specifically attributed to
another person or persons without citing the souce.
Information and ideas that are widely known by the
general public are considered “common knowledge” and
do not need to have a documented source. 56a1
• Copying another person’s paper and passing it off as your
Quotation Marks: Titles
Use quotation marks for titles of essays, articles,
short stories, poems, chapters, songs, and
episodes of a TV show.
Examples:
You ought to read Sharon Olds’ poem, “Sex Without
Love.”
Kate Chopin’s short story, “The Story of an Hour,”
made me think of my mother’s life.
* Note: commas and periods go inside quotation
marks.
Quotation Marks: Dialogue
Use quotation marks to indicate a speaker’s exact
words or the exact words of a source from which
you are quoting. Write each person’s speech,
however short, in separate paragraphs.
Examples:
Mom said, “I’ll be late for supper tonight”; I decided
to surprise her and make dinner.
“May I help you?” the clerk asked Sue.
“No, thanks,” Sue replied in a quiet voice.
Robert Frost once said the following: “All there is to
writing is having ideas. To learn to write is to
QUOTATION MARKS FOR WORDS
Use quotation marks for words that are used as
words, rather than for their meaning and for
words used in special ways, such as for irony
(when the writer means the opposite of what is
being said). Quotation marks can also be used to
introduce unfamiliar or technical words the first
time they are introduced.
“Cool” is a word I wish she’d omit from her
vocabulary.
The three-year-old held up his “work of art” for the
teacher to admire.
USE OF OTHER MARKS OF
PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION
MARKS
Put commas and periods inside quotation marks. When a reference
follows the quotation, put the period after the parenthetical citation:
“The Politics of Hunger,” a recent article in Political Quarterly, discussed
the use of military force to help victims of hunger.
Brian said, “I never forget a face.”
Jenkins said, “Every good author’s style of writing derives from his
particular form of wit” (252).
According to one source, “Moshenberg’s style of writing derives from his
particular form of wit” (Jenkins 252).
Jenkins said that “every good author’s style of writing derives from his
particular form of wit” (252).
ITALICS/UNDERLINING
Use italics (or underlining) for titles and names of
books, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, works
of art, long works such as plays, names of TV
shows, movies, titles of albums, CDs, and DVDs.
Catcher in the Rye
Catcher in the Rye
Newsweek
Newsweek
Plain Dealer
Plain Dealer
The Matrix
The Matrix
Beatles’ Greatest Hits
Beatles’ Greatest Hits
ITALICS/UNDERLINING
Use italics or underlining for the names of
ships, airplanes, and trains:
Titanic Concorde
Orient Express
Use italics or underlining for foreign words
and phrases and scientific names of plants
and animals:
in vino veritas
canis lupus
carpe diem
ITALICS/UNDERLINING
Use italics or underlining for words used as
words or letters or examples or terms:
Some words, such as Kleenex, are brand
names for products.
In English, the ph and f often have the same
sound.
ITALICS/UNDERLINING
DO NOT use italics or underlining for the
following:
Words of foreign origin that are now part of
English:
alumni
cliché karaoke hacienda
shtick
PL=PLAGIARISM
Paraphrasing without using lead ins or
parenthetical citations. See the example below:
For someone to really understand who Santa really was, they have to
back a few thousand years, back to 300 AD. Saint Nicholas was born in
Patara to wealthy parents. His parents died later in his life and left
him a large inheritance. He became Bishop of Myra and was known
for his generosity toward others. On December 6, 343 AD, Saint Nick
died. He was buried in his cathedral in Myra (Seals p.o. 1).
Same Quote—No Plagiarism
• Introduce the paraphrase with a lead in, words of
your own, so we know you are starting to
paraphrase. End with a parenthetical citation.
•
According to the St. Nicholas Center website, for someone to really
understand who Santa really was, one has to back a few thousand years, back
to 300 AD. Saint Nicholas was born in Patara to wealthy parents. His parents
died later in his life and left him a large inheritance. He became Bishop of
Myra and was known for his generosity toward others. On December 6, 343
AD, Saint Nick died. He was buried in his cathedral in Myra (Seals p.o. 1).
Works Cited
Bowen, James. “Thanksgiving Traditions.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 2003 ed.
“The First American Thanksgiving Began Long Before 1776.” Thanks-giving
Square Foundation. C 2000. http://www.thanksgiving.org/2us.html
(1 Dec. 2005).
Hak, Marianne. “Pilgrim’s Progress.” Better Nutrition 65.11 (2003): 54—66.
Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost (30 Nov. 2005).
Angela’s Grammar Rule:
• One student suggested the following grammar rule be
added to this tutorial, “Put an apostrophe here, but not
there except for when the moon is full, and put
parentheses here except for when Jupiter’s moons
appear. But most importantly, don’t forget to sacrifice a
goat every time you want to misuse a comma” (Miloro 2).