Effective Biomedical Writing
Rebecca A. Bartow, Ph.D.
Instructor
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky
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A scientific experiment, no matter how
spectacular the results, is not completed
until the results are published. In fact, the
cornerstone of the philosophy of science is
based on the fundamental assumption that
original research must be published; only
thus can new scientific knowledge be
authenticated and added to the existing data
base called scientific knowledge.
From How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, by Robert A.
Day
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Organization of a Scientific Paper:
the IMRAD Approach
I—Introduction: What problem (question)
was studied?
M—Methods: How was the problem
studied?
R—Results: What were the findings?
A—and
D—Discussion: What do these findings
mean?
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The Title
A good title should
 Accurately, completely, and specifically identify the main
topic.
 Be unambiguous.
 Be concise.
 Begin with an important word to attract intended readers.
 Be a label suitable for indexing.
 Be informative or declarative.
 Include animal species.
 Avoid subtitles.
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Examples
 Endogenous Nitric Oxide Protects Against
Platelet Aggregation and Cyclic Flow
Variations in Stenosed Arteries in Dogs
 Esmolol Improves Airway Function in
Patients Who Have Asthma
 Impaired Pulmonary Function in Newborn
Lambs Anesthetized with Halothane
 Rapid Accumulation of Eosinophils in Lung
Lesions in Guinea Pigs Infected with
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
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Title Exercise
 Results of Studies of the Effects of Endothelin-1 on
Isolated Vascular Beds from Rats with Normal Blood
Pressure and Those That are Spontaneously
Hypertensive
 Development and Characterization of an In Vivo Central
Venous Catheter C. albicans Biofilm Model
 Effect of Liver Disease on the Cardiovascular Response to
Nicardipine
 Isolation of Antigens from Monkeys Using Complementfixation Techniques
 A Study of the Expression of p53 in Melanoma Tissue
 A Double-Catheter Technique for Caudally Misdirected
Catheters in the Umbilical Artery
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The Abstract
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A good abstract should
State the principal objectives and
scope of the investigation.
Describe the methods used.
Summarize the results.
State the principal conclusions.
Be brief (250 words maximum).
Avoid abbreviations and jargon.
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Introduction
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What question (problem) was studied?
The answer is the Introduction.
Funnel organization.
General area. Nature and scope of problem
(Known).
Previous findings. Review pertinent literature.
Gap or general problem (Unknown).
Hypothesis or research question—signal.
Method of investigation.
Catches and keeps the reader’s attention.
Recommended length = 1 to 2 pages.
Present and past tense.
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Introduction
Example
Several general anesthetics, including barbiturates, are
known to depress the bronchomotor response to vagus nerve
stimulation. The site of the depression, however, has not
been determined. To identify which site in the vagal motor
pathway to the bronchioles is most sensitive to depression by
barbiturates, we used isolated rings of ferret trachea in which
we simulated this pathway at four different sites before and
after exposure to barbiturates.
Note: Guide your reader by using the same key terms
throughout your paper.
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Signaling the Question
 To determine whether . . .
 To determine which . . .
 The purpose of this study was . . .
 Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that . . .
 This report describes experiments designed to
determine whether . . .
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Materials and Methods
How was the problem studied?
The answer is the Methods.
 Describe what was done to answer the research question.
 Give full details of the chosen methodology.
 Logical order, usually chronological.
 Study design—brief statement. Include institutional review and
approval.
 Preparation/materials/subjects, described adequately.
 Protocol.
 Analytical methods.
 Subheadings.
 Figures and tables.
 Recommended length = as long as necessary to describe what
you did: no unnecessary details and no results.
 Past tense.
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Results
What were the findings?
The answer is the Results.
 Logically answers the research question. Most important
result first.
 Presents the representative data from THIS STUDY ONLY.
 Uses tables, graphs, photographs, and drawings for data.
 Text supplements rather than repeats data in the visual.
 Correlates the results with the methods.
 Data agree within the section and with those data given in
other sections and visuals.
 Recommended length = brief and uncluttered.
 Past tense.
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Results
 Introduce each experimental section with a clear description of
the experimental design and aims.
To detect proteins transiently expressed in prenatal brain, we compared
the protein maps….
 Describe data and trends concisely.
Avoid: As shown in Figure 2, antisense treatment blocked all
expression…
Better: Antisense treatment blocked all expression…(Figure 2).
 Put large amounts of data in figures and tables. If one or a few
determinations are presented, they should be described in the
text.
Tables—best for showing exact values
Figures—best for showing trends, relationships, and effects
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Discussion
What do these findings mean?
The answer is the Discussion.
Discuss—not recapitulate—the Results.
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Components
Beginning
 Answer the question posed in the introduction; signal.
Ending of the introduction:
". . . to test whether abnormal coronary vasoconstriction
detected by hyperventilation testing before angioplasty,
increases the likelihood of restenosis."
Beginning of the Discussion:
“In our study, the presence of abnormal coronary
vasoconstriction, detected on hyperventilation testing
before angioplasty, was associated with an increased
likelihood of restenosis in patients with unstable angina
and single-vessel coronary disease."
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Components
Middle
 Interpretation of what is known.
 Summarize evidence for each conclusion.
 Comparisons with others.
 Ambiguous results, discrepancies with others—
presented objectively.
 Unexpected findings.
 Limitations.
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Components
End
 Strong conclusion.
 Signal.
 Application, implications, speculation.
 Future work, only if necessary.
Format
 Present tense; active voice.
 3 to 4 double-spaced pages (750-1000 words).
 Never apologize.
 No new ideas. Discusses this study.
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References
Should
 Include only significant, published
works.
 Use the correct format. Consult a
current copy of the journal.
 Be checked against the information
in the original publications.
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SIMPLE WORDS
AVOID EUPHEMISMS
Employ or utilize = use
Sacrificed = killed
Finalize or terminate = end Euthanized = killed
Initial = first
Expired = died
Initiate = start
Females = women
Impact = affect
Males = men
Perform = do
Prior to = before
Significant = important, great, major
(reserve use for statistical meaning)
Subsequently = after
Sufficient = enough
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Use Transition Words
to Indicate Relationships
Cause or reason:
Because
Since (time)
Example:
For example
Sequence:
First
Addition:
In addition
Furthermore
Contrast:
In contrast
However
Nevertheless
Although
Conclusions:
Therefore
Thus
In conclusion
In summary
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Avoid Useless Words and
Phrases
Clearly
Interestingly
It is evident
It is apparent
As a matter of fact
It is of interest to note
With reference to
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Avoid Wordiness
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Take into consideration = consider
Lend support to = support
Arrive at a conclusion = conclude
Have a preference for = prefer
Conduct an investigation = investigate
Serve as a substitute = substitute
Become aware of = aware
At this point in time = now
Due to the fact that = because
A majority of = most
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Avoid Redundancy
 The samples were pale blue in color.
 The percentage of positive results was
88%.
 The component parts were assembled.
 The phantom is cylindrical in shape.
 We obtained a consensus of opinion on
the format.
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Word Usage
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Affect/Effect/Impact
Include/Consist of/Comprise
Increase/Augment/Enhance
Regime/Regimen
Patient/Case
While/Whereas
That/Which
CetB mutants, which are tolerant to colicin E2, have an altered…
CetB mutants that are tolerant to colicin E2 have an altered….
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Check the Antecedent
 Anthropometric measurements were made in the
field by trained personnel, and they were found to
be similar.
 The left leg became numb at times, and she
walked it off. …On her second day, the knee was
better, and on the third day, it disappeared.
 Approvals were obtained from the Institutional
Review Boards and informed consents from their
parents.
 Calibration curves were derived using miniature
piglets that translated TOBEC readings into
estimates of FFM and TBW.
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Subject-Verb Separation
 The design of the experiment, in terms
of a clear control and the practicability
of timing the reactions precisely,
although compensations were included
to address these factors, was not
entirely successful.
 The design of the experiment was not
entirely successful because of the
failure to establish a clear control and
time reactions, although compensations
were included to address these factors.
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Find the Lapse in
Noun-Verb Agreement
 The immobilized antibody beads were
washed and lactase eluted with 350 µL 2%
Laemmli sample buffer containing 2% ßmercaptoethanol.
 The relative proportion of the 2
polypeptides were calculated as a
percentage of the total mass of
immunoprecipitated lactase.
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Find the Verb Converted to a
Noun Action in the Subject
 Evaporation of ethanol from the mixture occurred
rapidly.
 Measurements of blood pH were made with a
radiometer capillary electrode.
 Prolongation of life in third world countries for
infants with diarrhea has been accomplished with
oral hydration solutions.
 Determination of the isotopic enrichment of the
compounds was carried out by GC-MS.
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Put the Action in a New Verb
 At least two analyses were made on
each sample.
 The infusion of tyramine produced a
decrease in cutaneous blood flow.
 These agents exert their action by
inhibition of synthesis of cholesterol by
the liver.
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The Importance of
Grammar and Syntax
 Using a fiberoptic microscope, dogs were
immunized with sheep red blood cells.
 After standing in boiling water for an hour,
examine the flask.
 Employing a straight platinum wire rabbit, sheep
and human blood agar plates were inoculated.
 Lying on top of the intestine, you will see a small
transparent thread.
 A large mass of literature has accumulated on
the cell walls of staphylococci.
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Always
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SpellCheck.
Proofread.
Check your references.
Proofread.
Ask colleague to read.
Proofread.
Proofread.
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The End
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Form
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Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
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Acknowledgments
References
Tables
Figure Legends
Figures
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Title Page
Components
 Title
 Authors (and degrees, if requested by the
journal)
 Institutional affiliation
 Running head
 Present addresses
 Grant support (either on title page or
acknowledgment page)
 Person to whom correspondence should be
addressed
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Comparison With Earlier Work
Own work first:
Our finding that protein-deficient guinea pigs had
fewer circulating T lymphocytes than chow-fed
guinea pigs 2 weeks after infection agrees with
other work in which malnourished mice had
lower IL-2 levels (12) and decreased numbers of
T lymphocytes after infection (25).
Other's work first:
Other work showed that malnourished animals
had lower IL-2 levels (12) and fewer T
lymphocytes after infection (25) than well
nourished animals; our results agree with those
findings.
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Comparison with Others
Example:
The high incidence (26%) of postpartum
maternal hemorrhage recorded in this review
was not unexpected; Heys found a 24%
increase in his large series in Manchester.
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Acknowledgment
 Intellectual assistance.
 Technical help.
 Special equipment or materials.
 Outside financial assistance (including
grants, contracts, or fellowships).
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Summary of Conclusions
In conclusion, we have shown that
endogenously produced nitric oxide protects
against cyclic flow reductions in stenosed and
endothelium-injured coronary and femoral
arteries by inhibiting platelet aggregation. In
addition, our studies show that an
endothelium-dependent vasodilator,
acetylcholine, constricts femoral arteries with
injured endothelium and increases the
severity of cyclic flow reductions.
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Discrepancies with Others
Example:
In our study in guinea pigs, the T gamma cell
population was unresponsive to antigenic
stimulation, even in the presence of syngeneic
accessory cells, whereas T gamma cell
populations from patients with tuberculosis
showed antigenic reactivity (9,11). This
discrepancy may be due to differences in
enrichment techniques used to obtain purified
populations.
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