District Academic Vocabulary for English
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LITERARY VOCABULARY
Mythic literature - a body of traditional or sacred stories to explain a belief or a natural happening
Classical literature - literature that is widely acknowledged for its outstanding and enduring qualities
Traditional literature - stories that were originally oral and later became written text
Allegory – a story that has both a literal meaning and symbolic meaning. In an allegory, characters or
objects often embody abstract ideas (e.g., John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress or George Orwell’s Animal
Farm)
Satire - A work or manner that blends a censorious attitude with humor and wit for improving human
institutions or humanity. Satirist s attempt through laughter not so much to tear down as to inspire a
remodeling.
Motif – the recurring or dominant structure of a literary work; the intentional repetition of a word,
phrase, event, or idea as a unifying theme
Symbolism – the use of symbols to represent abstract ideas in concrete ways (e.g., The United States
flag stands for freedom.)
Allusion – a reference within a literary work to another work of literature, art, or real event. The
reference is often brief and implied.
Voice- The distinctive style or manner of expression of an author or of a character in a work
Syntax – the arrangement and sequence of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases
Diction – choice of words in speaking or writing for clear and effective expression
Connotative meaning/connotation – the emotions or set of associations attached to a word that is
implied rather than literal (e.g., feeling blue)
Denotative meaning/denotation – the dictionary definition of a word; the literal or cognitive meaning
Affix - a word element, such as a prefix or suffix, that occurs before or after a root or base word to
modify its meaning (e.g., the prefix un-and the suffix –able in unbelievable)
Context - the words, sentences, or passages that precede or follow a specific word, sentence, or passage
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Steps in word analysis
Based on the textual context, use clues within the sentence or larger section of text to
determine the meaning of a selected word
Distinguish its meaning as either denotative or connotative, using a dictionary as necessary
Inference - a logical guess made by connecting bits of information. Readers make inferences by drawing
conclusions, making generalizations, and making predictions.
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A subtle inference is one in which the bits of information are not as easily connected.
Drawing conclusions - a form of inference in which the reader gathers information, considers the Subtle
inference - readers make inferences by drawing conclusions, making generalizations, and making
general thoughts or ideas that emerge from the information, and comes to a decision. The conclusion is
generally based on more than one piece of information.
Synthesize – combine elements and parts to form a coherent whole
Etymology - the origin and history of a word; the study of word derivation
Analogy - a vocabulary exercise in which an association between a concept and its attribute is present
(e.g., hot:cold as north:_____)
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Steps in analysis
Identify an analogy
Determine the word relationship (e.g., synonyms/antonyms, part to whole, whole to part,
function, description, homographs, homophones)
Infer the meaning by examining the relationship
Inductive reasoning - the process of determining general principles by logic or observation from specific
data; reasoning from parts to whole (e.g., all ice I’ve ever felt is cold; therefore, all ice is cold)
Deductive reasoning – the process of logical reasoning from general principles to specific instances
based on the assumed truth of the principle; reasoning from wholes to parts.
Generalization - a straight-forward statement about a group/class of persons, places, things, events
supported by information
Summarize - to reduce large sections of text to their essential points and main ideas. Note: It is still
important to attribute summarized ideas to the original source
Theme - the central or universal idea of a piece of fiction or the main idea of a nonfiction essay. Themes
are ideas or concepts that relate to morals and values and speak to the human experience.
 A central idea. In nonfiction prose it may be thought of as the general topic of discussion, the
subject of the discourse, the thesis. In poetry, fiction, and drama it is the abstract concept that is
made concrete through representation in person, action, and image.
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Possible examples of themes:
Social influences determine a person’s destiny.
Good friends are important.
People go through trials before they mature.
Explicit theme - the author overtly states the theme somewhere within the work
Implicit theme - refers to the author's ability to construct a piece in such a way that through inference
the reader understands the theme
Characterization is the process by which the writer reveals the personality of a character.
(Characterization is revealed through direct characterization and indirect characterization.)
 Direct Characterization tells the audience what the personality of the character is.
 Example: “The patient boy and quiet girl were both well mannered and did not disobey their
mother.”
 Explanation: The author is directly telling the audience the personality of these two children.
The boy is “patient” and the girl is “quiet.”
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Indirect Characterization shows things that reveal the personality of a character. There are five
different methods of indirect characterization:
Speech : What does the character say? How does the character speak?
Thoughts: What is revealed through the character’s private thoughts and feelings?
Effect on Others : What is revealed through the character’s effect on other people? How do
other characters feel or behave in reaction to the character?
Actions : What does the character do? How does the character behave?
Looks : What does the character look like? How does the character dress?
Motivation-The reasons, justifications, and explanations for the action of a character. Motivation results
from a combination of the character's moral nature with the circumstances in which the character is
placed. Motivation helps to determine what the character does, says, and feels or fails to feel.
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Types of Characters
Foil-A term applied to any person who through contrast underscores the distinctive
characteristics of another.
Dynamic-A character who develops or changes as a result of the actions of the plot. (A character
who changes, especially one who comes to a major realization. The realization may or may not
change the character’s actions, but the character must never be able to see the world in quite
the same way.)
Flat-A character that is immediately recognizable and can usually be represented by a single
sentence( a literary character whose personality can be defined by one or two traits and does
not change in the course of the story ).
Round-A character sufficiently complex to be able to surprise the reader without losing
credibility. (Character in fiction whose personality, background, motives, and other features are
fully delineated by the author… Such characters usually tend to be more fully developed and
described than other characters.)
Static-A character that changes little if at all. Things happen to static characters without
modifying their interior selves. (A character who remains the same throughout a narrative.
Static characters do not develop or change beyond the way in which they are first presented.)
Stock- is a fictional character based on a common literary or social stereotype. Stock characters
rely heavily on cultural types or names for their personality, manner of speech, and other
characteristics. (Character in literature, theater, or film of a type quickly recognized and
accepted by the reader or viewer and requiring no development by the writer)
Archetype - a model image, personage, or theme that recurs in stories and myths throughout history
and literature (e.g., mother figure)
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Steps in analysis
Identify the archetype (e.g., journey of a hero, tragic flaw)
Identify the character traits that are specific to the identified archetype
Explain the character and his/her relationship to the archetype
Journey of a Hero - an example of an archetype commonly seen in mythology in which an adventure is
presented to a would-be hero. During this adventure, the hero encounters challenges that must be
overcome. Once these are overcome, the hero returns to share the benefits of his or her learning.
Figurative language - language not intended to be taken literally but layered with meaning through the
use of imagery, metaphors, and other literary devices
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Explain how the figurative language is indicative of the cultural and historical setting Simile - a
comparison of two things that are essentially different, usually using the words like or as (e.g., O
my love is like a red, red rose from Robert Burns’s “A Red, Red Rose”)
Simile - a comparison of two things that are essentially different, usually using the words like or as (e.g.,
O my love is like a red, red rose from Robert Burns’s “A Red, Red Rose”)
Metaphor - a subtle comparison in which the author describes a person or thing using words that are
not meant to be taken literally (e.g., time is a dressmaker specializing in alterations)
Euphemism- A device in which indirectness replaces directness of statement, usually in an effort to
avoid offensiveness.
Hyperbole - an intentional and extreme exaggeration for emphasis or effect (e.g., this book weighs a
ton) it may be used for humor.
Personification - figurative language in which non-human things or abstractions are represented as
having human qualities (e.g., necessity is the mother of invention)
Irony - a literary technique used to create meaning that seems to contradict the literal meaning or
events
Verbal irony - the use of words in which the intended meaning is contrary to the literal meaning
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Verbal irony refers to spoken words only. Verbal irony occurs when a character says one thing,
but suggests or intends the opposite. The contrast is between what the speaker says and what
he actually means. For example, in Julius Caesar, Mark Antony repeats the words "and Brutus is
an honorable man" in the famous “Friends, Romans, countrymen” speech. Mark Antony’s
meaning, however, is that Brutus is completely dishonorable because Brutus, Caesar’s best
friend, joined the other conspirators and plunged a knife into Caesar’s chest.
Note: Verbal irony may be confused with sarcasm, but sarcasm is harsh and direct, while verbal
irony is implied.
Situational irony - a literary technique for implying, through plot or character, that the actual situation is
quite different from that presented
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Situational irony defies logical cause/effect relationships and justifiable expectations. For
example, if a greedy millionaire were to buy a lottery ticket and win additional millions, the
irony would be situational because such a circumstance cannot be explained logically. Such a
circumstance seems “unfair.” This sense of being “unfair” or “unfortunate” is a trademark of
situational irony. Because people cannot explain the unfairness, it causes them to question
whether or not the world makes sense.
Sarcasm - a bitter form of irony, intended to taunt or hurt
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Note: Verbal irony may be confused with sarcasm, but sarcasm is harsh and direct, while verbal
irony is implied.
Paradox - a seemingly contradictory statement that on closer scrutiny reveals a deeper truth
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A statement that although seemingly contradictory or absurd may actually be well founded or
true
Plot - the basic sequence of events in a story. In conventional stories, plot has three main parts: rising
action, climax, and falling action.
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Steps in analysis
Identify isolated scenes
Explain how the selected, isolated scene contributed to the plot (e.g., how the author built
suspense, introduced the story problem and cause of conflict, etc.) as a whole
Conflict - in literature, the opposition of persons or forces that brings about dramatic action central to
the plot of a story. Conflict may be internal, as a psychological conflict within a character, or external
(e.g., man versus man, man versus nature, or man versus society).
Resolution - the point in a literary work at which the story’s problem is worked out
Moral dilemma/quandary - a state of perplexity or uncertainty, especially as to what to do (right and
wrong)
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Steps in analysis
Identify the moral dilemmas of characters in the selected works of fiction
Consider the geographical and cultural backgrounds of the characters
Compare and contrast the moral dilemmas faced by the characters and how the characters may
have been influenced by differences in country and culture
Point of view - the perspective from which the events in the story are told.
The author may choose any of the following:
 Third-person omniscient: The narrator tells the story in third person from an all-knowing
perspective. The knowledge is not limited by any one character’s view or behavior, as the
narrator knows everything about all characters. (Narrator recounts the story, and knows the
thoughts of all the characters in the story)
 Third-person limited: The narrator restricts his knowledge to one character’s view or behavior.
(Narrator is not in the story)
 When the narrator recounts the story, and knows the thoughts of only the central
character, then can be referred to as third-person central character as well.
 Third-person limited / Objective: The narrator reveals only the actions and words without the
benefit of the inner thoughts and feelings. (Narrator recounts the story, but tells the reader only
what he perceives; he does not know the thoughts of the characters.)
 First person/subjective: The narrator restricts the perspective to that of only one character to
tell the story. (Narrator is a character in the story.)
 First Person Major: Main character simply tells his own story.
 First Person Minor: A minor character, who “happens to be there,” tells the story.
 First Person Limited: a narrative mode in which the story is told through the point of view of
a single character and is limited to what he or she sees, hears, feels, or is told.
Syntax - the arrangement and sequence of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases
Diction - choice of words in speaking or writing for clear and effective expression
Voice - articulation or expression in coherent form, either verbally or in a piece of writing
Tone - the author’s particular attitude, either stated or implied in the writing
Mood - the atmosphere or feeling created by the writer in a literary work or passage. Mood can be
expressed through imagery, word choice, setting, voice, and theme. For example, the mood evoked in
Edgar Allan Poe’s work is gloomy and dark.
Atmosphere- The prevailing tone or mood of a literary work, particularly-but not exclusively-when that
mood is established in part by setting or landscape. It is, however, not simply setting but rather an
emotional aura that helps to establish the reader’s expectations and attitudes.
Imagery - the use of language to create mental images and sensory impressions. Imagery can be used
for emotional effect and to intensify the impact on the reader.
Symbolism - the use of symbols to represent abstract ideas in concrete ways (e.g., The United States flag
stands for freedom.)
Allegory - a story that has both a literal meaning and symbolic meaning. In an allegory, characters or
objects often embody abstract
Allusion - a reference within a literary work to another work of literature, art, or real event. The
reference is often brief and implied.
Terms Related to Poetry - THE STRUCTURE OF PROSODY AND GRAPHIC ELEMENTS IN POETRY
Prosody - the vocal intonation and meter of spoken language. When reading with prosody, readers
sound as if they are speaking the part they are reading.
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Structure of prosody include, but are not limited to:
Meter
Rhyme scheme
Meter - the basic rhythmic structure in verse, composed of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Rhyme scheme - the pattern of rhyming lines (e.g., ABAB, ABBA)
Stress-The emphasis give a spoken syllable.
Octave - An eight-line stanza. It is also used to denote the first eight-line division of the Italian sonnet as
separate from the last six-line division, the sestet.
Couplet - two lines of verse, usually in the same meter and joined by rhyme, that form a unit.
Sestet - The second, six-line division of an Italian sonnet. Following the eight-line division, the sestet
usually makes specific a general statement that has been presented in the octave or indicates the
personal emotion of the author in a situation that the octave has developed
Quatrain -A stanza of four lines.
Refrain- One or more words repeated at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza.
Sonnet-A poem almost invariable of fourteen lines and following one of several set rhyme schemes.
 English-Contains three quatrains and a rhymed concluding couplet. Rhyme scheme is ABAB
CDCD EFEF GG
 Italian-It is divided into the octave and sestet. The octave rhyming ABBAABBA and the sestet
CDECDE, CDCDCD, or CDEDCE
Villanelle-a verse form which consists of six stanzas (five tercets and one quatrain) containing two
rhymes and two lines repeated in a prescribed pattern
Repetition- Reiteration of a word, sound, phrase, or idea.
Poetic Graphic elements include, but are not limited to:
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Line length
Punctuation (e.g., italics, exclamation)
Word position
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Steps in analysis
Identify the structures of prosody and graphic elements
Explain and analyze the purpose of the structures and prosody
Alliteration-The repetition of initial identical consonant sounds
Assonance-The repetition of vowel sounds
Consonance - The repetition of consonants or of a consonant pattern, especially at the ends of words, as
in blank and think or strong and string.
Literary Terms Related to Drama
Script - a written version of the speech and actions of performers, as in a play or film
Dramatic irony - a dramatic device in which a character says or does something that they do not fully
grasp, but is understood by the audience
Act - A major division of drama. The major parts of the Greek plays were distinguished by the
appearance of the chorus, and they generally fell, as Aristotle implies, into five parts. The Latin tragedies
of Seneca were divided into five acts; and, when English dramatists in the Elizabethan Age began using
at divisions, they followed their Roman models, as did other modern European dramatists. In varying
degrees the five-act structure corresponded to the five main divisions of dramatic action: exposition,
complication, climax, falling action, and catastrophe.
Scene -A subdivision of an act in a dramatic presentation that takes place in one setting and period of
time.
Protagonist-The chief character of a work
Antagonist -The character directly opposed to the protagonist ( A rival, opponent, or enemy of the
protagonist).
Soliloquy -A speech delivered while the speaker is alone, calculated to inform the audience of what is
passing in the character’s mind.
Tragedy-A dramatic or literary work depicting a protagonist engaged in a morally significant struggle,
ending in ruin or utter disappointment.
Tragic Flaw- The theory that there is a flaw in the tragic hero that causes his or her downfall.
Comedy - A dramatic work that is light and often humorous or satirical in tone and that usually contains
a happy resolution of the thematic conflict.
Hero -The central character in a work. The character that is the focus of interest.
Villain -An evil character, potentially or actually guilty of serious crimes; he or she acts in opposition to
the hero. The villain is the chief antagonist of the drama
Hubris -Overweening pride or insolence that results in the misfortune of the protagonist of a tragedy.
Hubris leads the protagonist to break a moral law, attempt vainly to transcend normal imitation, or
ignore a divine warning with calamitous results.
Aside-A dramatic convention by which an actor directly addresses the audience but is not supposed to
be heard by the other actors on stage.
Terms Related to Informational Text
Logical – any system of rational, logical thought
Empirical – based on observation or experience, as opposed to theory
Anecdotal – based on personal observation as opposed to scientific evidence predictions.
Organizational pattern - the pattern an author constructs as he or she organizes his or her ideas and
provides supporting details. Examples of commonly used patterns are cause and effect, problem and
solution, description, and order of importance.
Procedural text – a type of informational text that is written with the intent to explain the steps in the
procedure, as in a recipe. (Procedural text could house data that requires reader interpretation.)
Terms Specific to Persuasion
Bias – a speaker’s personal opinions or beliefs regarding a topic, issue or situation
Rhetorical fallacy - an argument that is not sound but may still be convincing. Rhetorical fallacies may be
divided into three categories:
 Emotional fallacies appeal to the audience's emotions.
 Ethical fallacies unreasonably advance the writer's own authority or character.
 Logical fallacies depend upon faulty logic (an incorrect or problematic argument that is not
based on sound reasoning [e.g., Because everything is bigger in Texas, you can expect a bigger
salary in Texas.])
List of Rhetorical fallacies
 Appeals to commonly held opinion- this fallacy consists in urging the acceptance of a ... and
history that were at one time held to be true by large numbers of people
 False dilemmas - involves a situation in which only two alternatives are considered, when in
fact there are other options
 Appeals to pity - a familiar type of emotional appeal is the appeal to pity or sympathy, which
is used by many charities
 Personal attacks - attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly
casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit (attacks the
person rather than the argument)
 Bandwagon - When a writer tries to persuade the reader to do, think, or buy something
because it is popular or everyone is doing it
 Incorrect factual claims - A fallacy which false information is used to persuade a person to
do something
 Red herring - An observation that draws attention away from the central issue in a argument
 False authority - using a biased, suspicious, or incredible source to defend a conclusion
 Ad hominem - Directed to or appealing to feelings or prejudices instead of to intellect or
reason
 Exaggeration - to make an overstatement or to stretch the truth
 Stereotyping - Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that
person belongs
 Categorical claims - Performs the task of telling how one type of thing/action relates to
another. A logical connection between introductions and a conclusion.
 Testimonials - Using the declaration of a famous person or authoritative expert to give
heightened credibility
 Appeal to false authority - using a biased, suspicious, or incredible source to defend a
conclusion
 Scare tactics - Using fear, panic, or prejudice to win a argument
 False need - Arguments create an unnecessary desire for things
 Loaded terms - Uses words with strong positive or negative connotations to stir peoples
emotions.
 Caricatures - A representation of a person where certain features of that person are
exaggerated or distorted
 Leading questions - A question phrased in such a way as to suggest the desired answer
 False assumptions - mistaken beliefs that logical fallacies begin with
 Incorrect premises - False proposition that creates errors in the conclusions. A general
principle that isn't true. Lying in order to throw off the opponent.
HOW MESSAGES IN MEDIA ARE CONVEYED THROUGH VISUAL AND SOUND TECHNIQUES
Steps in analysis
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Identify visual and sound techniques
Identify the message
Explain and analyze how visual and sound techniques convey the message
Visual techniques
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Editing
Reaction shots
Sequencing
Camera angles (e.g., close-ups, multiple exposures, digital composing)
Lighting
Special effects - the illusion used to simulate the imagined events
Movement
Graphics
Shape
Color
Picture
Sound techniques
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Music (e.g., background music)
Sound effects - simulate imagined events
Argumentative essay - an essay in which the writer develops or debates a topic using logic and
persuasion
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Evaluative essays
Proposals
Ways to organize a persuasive essay:
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Voice and style appropriate to the audience and purpose
Classificatory - advantages/ disadvantages plus writer’s position
Hierarchical - order of importance plus writer’s position
Strongest argument to weakest to strongest
Enumeration (reasons why or why not) plus writer’s position
Comparison/contrast plus writer’s position
Problem/writer’s solution
Position - an opinion about a particular subject
 All ideas strongly relate to the position and are focused on the issue
 Forceful and convincing argument supported by specific and well-chosen evidence
Counter argument - when the author turns against his/her argument to challenge it and then turns back
to re-affirm it. It is an objection to the objection, used to strengthen the author’s position.
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an argument against your thesis or some aspect of your reasoning
Formality in media – refers to the level of sophistication in language, word choice, appearance, and
delivery of media messages
Tone in media – the stated or implied attitude and/or reputation of a media outlet (e.g., humorous,
sentimental, hostile, sympathetic, neutral, etc.)
Argumentative essay – an essay in which the writer develops or debates a topic using logic and
persuasion
Thesis : An important part of ALL informational and persuasive writing.
 a statement or premise supported by arguments
 the subject or theme of a speech or composition
Organizational pattern - the pattern an author constructs as he or she organizes his or her ideas and
provides supporting details. Examples of commonly used patterns are cause and effect, problem and
solution, description, and order of importance.
Support - Defend with textual evidence, credible sources, and/or background knowledge and experience
Unsubstantiated – has not been verified, proven or confirmed
Valid source - a correct and truthful source. Some questions useful for evaluating validity of a source
might be: Does the author present facts with supporting evidence? Does the information in this source
match information in other sources?
Reliable source - credible or believable source. Some questions to evaluate credibility might be: Is the
author a respected authority on the subject? Does the author support opinions with strong
argumentation and reasoning? How current is the information?
WRITING VOCABULARY
Purpose - the intended goal of a piece of writing; the reason a person writes
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Examples of purposes for writing:
To entertain
To explain
To describe
To inform
To persuade
To respond
Rhetorical purpose - The author’s primary aim in a piece of writing. The rhetorical purpose could
be to narrate, to argue, to review, to explain, or to examine.
Audience - the intended target group for a message, regardless of the medium
Genre - the type or class of a work, usually categorized by form, technique, or content
Controlling idea - the main point or underlying direction of a piece of writing A controlling idea makes
the reader ask a question that will be answered by reading more or helps the reader understand the
author’s purpose for writing the paragraph or essay.
Analytical essay – an essay that analyzes and interprets a work of literature by using specific examples
from the text to build a logical argument beyond a summary or description of the work
Structure – how an essay or piece of writing is organized and written
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Organize ideas using outlines, note taking, graphic organizers, and/or lists as applicable
Select a form or structure appropriate to the genre, purpose and audience
Organizational Patterns
Chronological - arranges information according to a progression of time, either forward or
backward
Hierarchical
Pro/Con
Cause-and-effect
Comparison/Contrast
Attributes
Enumeration (reasons why)
Developing Drafts
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Develop a draft using a selected organizational pattern appropriate to the genre, audience and
purpose
Include ideas and details that are strongly related and contribute to the thesis or controlling idea
of the piece
Develop a coherent draft that is focused and well controlled with meaningful transitions and
connections
Include rhetorical devices as appropriate to convey meaning
Rhetorical device - a technique that an author or speaker uses to influence or persuade an audience.
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Overstatement
Understatement
Rhetorical questions
Hyperbole
Analogies
Irony
Figurative language
Transitional words and phrases - words or phrases that help to sustain a thought or idea through the
writing. They link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or
breaks between ideas.
Interpretative response - an analysis of a piece of literature in which the writer takes apart what was
written by another author and explains it
Embedded quotation - direct quotations incorporated smoothly into the text of a composition (e.g., Susa
[2006] describes sarcasm as “language of the weak and fearful” [p. 26])
Aesthetic effect - the use of language as an artistic medium to create imagery that evokes sensory
perception. Texts in which language can be used aesthetically include fiction, drama, films, and poetry.
Style - the way something is written, in contrast to its content. (e.g., Hemingway’s writing style is terse,
blunt, and conversational.) Style is more about how you say it than what you said.
Stylistic device - a technique used by an author to express meaning, ideas, or feelings in a written work
(e.g., metaphor, simile, alliteration, etc.). The use of these techniques is related to the tone of the piece
and the style of the author.
Logical – any system of rational, logical thought
Empirical – based on observation or experience, as opposed to theory
Anecdotal – based on personal observation as opposed to scientific evidence
Critique - holds and/or expresses opinions, takes a position
Unsubstantiated - has not been verified, proven, or confirmed
Revise drafts to:
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To improve style - the way something is written, in contrast to its content
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To improve word choice - the author’s thoughtful use of precise vocabulary to fully convey
meaning to the reader
To improve the use of figurative language - language not intended to be taken literally but
layered with meaning through the use of imagery, metaphors, and other literary devices
To improve sentence variety - purposeful use of simple, compound, complex and compound
complex sentences (refer to E2.17C)
To improve subtlety of meaning - fine distinctions of meaning
GRAMMATICAL VOCABULARY
Active verb tense - a verb is active if the subject of the sentence is doing the action (e.g., Birds flew out
of the nest.)
Passive verb tense - a verb is passive if the subject of the sentence is not doing the action (e.g., The nest
was made by birds.)
Verbal - a phrase using verbs as nonverbs;
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There are three types of verbals:
Gerund - a word derived from a verb ending in -ing that is used as a noun (e.g., reading is fun)
Infinitive - the uninflected or base form of the verb, usually preceded by to (e.g., to go)
Participle - a verb form incorporating the use of -ed or -ing for regular verbs and using the third
principle part of the verb for irregular verbs. These verb forms are used to form the progressive
tenses (e.g., speaking in Jim was speaking) or to serve as modifiers (e.g., writing in the writing
assignment).
Present participle - verbs ending in -ing (The crying baby was hungry.)
Past Participle - regular or irregular verbs written in past tense form (e.g., a chained prisoner, a written
letter, a sunken ship.)
Restrictive relative clause - a phrase or clause that limits the essential meaning of the noun or noun
phrase it modifies (e.g., who had a camera in the man who had a camera took our picture)
Nonrestrictive relative clause - a phrase or clause that adds descriptive detail to a noun without limiting
its meaning (e.g., who likes ice cream in the sentence Claire, who likes ice cream, is from Ohio). In
English, a nonrestrictive clause is usually set off by commas.
Reciprocal pronoun - a pronoun expressing a mutual relationship (e.g., each other and one another).
 “Each other” is used when the group consists of just two people, animals, or things. (e.g., The
man and the woman gave each other a gift.)
 “One another” is used when the group consists of more than two people, animals, or things.
(e.g., The students work with one another in the classroom.)
Compound sentence - a sentence composed of at least two independent clauses linked with a
conjunction or semicolon (e.g., Sam talked, and Emma listened)
Complex sentence - a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g., I
cleaned the room when the guests left)
Compound-complex sentence - a compound sentence with at least one dependent clause (e.g., dogs
bark and birds sing when they are happy)