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Particle
Charge
Symbo
l
Mass
Location
Proton
Positive
P+
1.67262158 × 1027 kilograms
In the
Nucleus
Neutron
Neutral
N
1.674927351(74)×10−27
In the
Nucleus
Electron
Negative
e-
9.10938188 × 1031 kilograms
In orbits
around the
nucleus
Lewis diagrams show the symbol of the
element and the number of electrons in the
outer shell of an atom. Atoms have up to two
electrons in the first orbit (shell), 8 in the
second, 18 in the third.
Ionic Bonds
 Ionic bonds form
between metal and
non-metal atoms,
where one atom
gives electron(s)
and the other takes
one/them,
respectively.
Covalent Bonds
 Covalent bonds
form between two
non-metal atoms,
where electrons are
shared and travel
between the two
nuclei.
Covalent Bonds
 Covalent bonds
bond can form
unequally, where
electrons spend
more time with one
atom than the
other, forming a
polar bond
Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonding
occurs between polar
molecules containing
hydrogen. The slightly
negative atom in one
molecule (usually O or
N) exerts a pull on a
hydrogen atom in an
adjacent molecule,
creating a hydrogen
bond.
Hydrogen Bonds

The hydrogen bond is
easily broken but acts
to hold molecules
together.

A chemical reaction
involves the
rearrangement of
chemical bonds
with the release or
absorption of
energy

The process of
Respiration uses the
oxygen we breathe and
glucose (a
carbohydrate in our
diet), to produce
energy plus waste
products of carbon
dioxide and water. The
chemical reaction is as
follows:
Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
size
organic
inorganic
large
small
structure
complex – often
involves rings or
long chains
examples
C6H12O6;
C16H33COOH
simple – groups of
2 – 10 atoms only
NaCl;
NaOH
H2SO4;
What are functional groups?
groups of atoms that work as a unit and are often
involved in bonding between molecules
structural formula
hydroxyl
carboxyl
amino
–O–H
– 0H
example
alcohols &
sugars
–C–O–H
\\
O
– COOH
fatty acids &
amino acids
–N–H
\
H
amino acids
– NH2
• Functions:
1) Energy source (e.g.
glucose)
2) Structure (e.g.
cellulose)

3) Cell to cell
identification and
communication
Sources in your diet:
bread, pasta, fruit
• Monomer of all carbohydrates
monosaccharide
Take the following spheres from the box
6 black spheres
6 red spheres
12 yellow spheres
Make a stable structure with 5 black and one red sphere
using only 6 springs
Now attach the 6th black sphere to a black sphere in
the ring, beside the red sphere
Now join the remaining 5 red spheres to 1 yellow sphere
each & attach these hydroxyl groups, 1 per black sphere
Now fill in the remaining holes on the black spheres
with the remaining yellow spheres
Building a glucose structural formula
OH
H
C
C
H
H
O
H
H
C
C
OH
HO
H
C
C
H
OH
OH
Simplified structural formula
Rules: do not draw the ring carbons, or any
single hydrogens
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
HO
OH
Now get together with another group and place your
glucoses side-by-side
Remove the –OH from one glucose and -H from
the other glucose
Be sure to do this in such a way that you can
repeat this process if a third glucose is added
You have made a disaccharide
Disaccharides: two monosaccharides joined by
dehydration synthesis
An ether bond formed (water removed from 2 hydroxyl groups)
Examples of disaccharides
glucose + glucose --> maltose + water
glucose + fructose --> sucrose + water
glucose + galactose --> lactose + water
H
H2O +
HO
Reactions:

Dehydration
synthesis removes a
water molecule, forming
a new bond
• Hydrolysis adds a
water molecule,
breaking a bond
Starch:
Long chains of glucose
Found in potatoes
& grains
Glycogen:
Branched chains of
glucose
Glucose stored in
liver as glycogen
cellulose
Parallel chains of
glucose with every
second glucose
inverted
Found in plant cell
walls

Functions:
long-term energy storage (triglycerides),
make cell membranes (phospholipids)
make hormones (steroids)
make waterproof coatings on plants and
animals (waxes)
cushioning, protection, vitamin absorption
• Sources: meat, dairy, oils
Take 3 black spheres,
3 red spheres
8 white spheres
Bond the three carbons together
Bond an oxygen to each carbon
Complete the bonding with hydrogens
You have built a Glycerol
Take 5 black spheres; 2 red spheres; 10 yellow spheres
build a chain of carbons
To the end carbon, double bond one oxygen and
single bond one oxygen
Complete the remaining bonds with hydrogens
You have made a fatty acid
Drawings of glycerol and fatty acid
Glycerol
Fatty acid
H2COH
HCOH
H2COH
Place the glycerol molecule beside the fatty acid
Remove the –OH from the fatty acid and the –H
from one end hydroxyl group on the glycerol
Form a bond and assemble the other product
You have made a monoglyceride
glycerol
fatty acid
monoglyceride
+H2O
What functional groups joins glycerol and fatty acid together?
hydroxyl & carboxyl groups
-C-OH
HOOC -
What bond is formed between the glycerol and the fatty acid?
An ester bond
How many water molecules are removed when making a
monoglyceride?
One water
Saturated fatty acids vs. Unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acid
Unsaturated fatty acid
[Saturated with hydrogen]
Unsaturated trans-fatty acid
Unsaturated cis-fatty acid
Triglycerides:
monomers =
glycerol and 3
fatty acids
3 water
molecules are
removed to
make a
triglyceride
Phospholipids: contain hydrophilic head
(phosphate) and hydrophobic tails
(fatty acids)
Steroids:
include the sex
hormones and
cholesterol;
different structure
than other fats
From a health point of view saturated fatty acids are
associated with heart and health problems.
Also, trans- unsaturated fatty acids are also a
problem for the heart.
What are essential fatty acids?
Any fatty acids that humans can not make
from other fatty acids are called essential
fatty acids.
Why are they important in human diets?
Without these fatty acids,
people may have
learning problems
and in extreme cases,
get sick and die
Functions:
1) Structural components of cells
2) Enzymes
3) Other (e.g. hemoglobin, keratin)
Sources:
Meat, Dairy, Eggs, Tofu, Nuts
Monomer [building block] = amino acid
Take 2 black spheres;
4 yellow spheres;
2 red spheres
1 blue sphere
1 yellow or green sphere
Place the two carbons in a chain with the nitrogen [blue]
Place an oxygen and a hydroxyl group on the end carbon
Place two hydrogens on the nitrogen
Place a hydrogen and the yellow or green sphere
on the central carbon
You have made an amino acid
There are 20
different
amino acids.
They differ by
their R-group
An R-group is
the side chain
and it affects
bonding
Get together with another group and place the two
amino acids beside each other
Remove an –OH from one amino acid and an –H
from the other amino acid
Remember, you must be able to repeat this to add a
third amino acid, so choose your removals carefully
You have made a dipeptide
amino acid
H
H
+
amino acid
O
H
N—C—C
H
R
H
O
N—C—C
OH
H
R
OH
dipeptide molecule
H
H
O
N—C—C
H
R
H
O
N—C—C
H
peptide bond
R
+ H2O
OH
peptide bond formed
(water removed from
amino and carboxyl
groups)
Dipeptide: 2 amino
acids joined together
Polypeptide: 3 or more
amino acids joined
together
Levels of protein structure:
Primary structure the order of
amino acids
Secondary structure:
The two dimensional folding into
alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet
Keratin (in hair) is an
alpha-helix
Fibroin (in spider web
silk) is a beta-pleated
sheet
Tertiary structure:
Three-dimensional bends and kinks in
secondary structure due to the
interactions between R-groups
Quaternary structure:
2 or more polypeptide chains join together to make a
“globular” structure
Denaturation of Proteins
• denaturation occurs by breaking the bonds (H, ionic,
disulphide bridges) that give the polypeptide its
tertiary structure
• a change in temperature, pH, or ionic concentration can
change the 3-D shape of a protein and render it useless
There are 20 amino acids, 8 of these can not be made
from the remaining 12.
These 8 must be part of our diet and so they are called
essential amino acids.
A complete protein is one that contains all 8 of the
essential amino acids.
An incomplete protein is one that contains only some of
the essential amino acids.
eg. of complete proteins -
egg
meat
milk
eg. of incomplete proteins -
Grains such as wheat & rice
are deficient in lysine
Legumes such as beans,
peas, soybeans and
peanuts are deficient in
methionine
Functions:
DNA = genetic material (instructions to make proteins);
RNA = involved in making proteins;
ATP = energy for the cell
Sources: there are no direct dietary sources
Monomer:
nucleotide (composed of a
sugar, phosphate, and
nitrogenous base)
DNA
RNA
shape
double-stranded
single-stranded
bases
A, C, G, T
A, C, G, U
sugar
deoxyribose
ribose
ATP
-consists of a base
(adenine); a sugar
(ribose) and three
phosphates
The function of ATP is
to provide short term
energy storage for the
body to be used at any
location.
The process of making ATP involves the equation:
ADP +
Pi 
ATP + H2O
What type of reaction is this?
Since we are removing water,
this is a dehydration synthesis
The process of releasing energy from ATP involves the
equation: ATP + H2O  Pi + ADP
What type of reaction is this?
As we are breaking bonds with water this is a
hydrolysis reaction