BIOLOGY
Introduction to Biology
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Lab Experimentation & Safety
Characteristics of Life
Scientific Method
SI Units
Tools Biologists Use
Lab Experimentation
& Safety
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Safety Contract
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Teachers Attend Safety Training
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Intranet Access to Safety Manual Pg 75
August In-service
Activity: Lab from Hell
Characteristics of Life
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Living things are made up of units called cells.
 Unicellular & multicellular
Living things reproduce.
 Asexual & bisexual
Living things are based on a universal genetic code called DNA.
Living things grow & develop.
Living obtained/get and use materials and energy (metabolism).
Living things things maintain an internal balance (homeostasis).
This balance involves water, chemicals, and reactions with the
organisms’ body.
Living things change over time (evolution).
Notes, Key, & Lab: Characteristics of Life
5 Steps
Scientific Method
2.
State the problem
Form a hypothesis
3.
Set up a controlled experiment
1.
independent variable (I change)
 dependent variable
 Constants or controlled
Record & analyze results
Draw a conclusion
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4.
5.
Lab Reports
Lab Activity: Brand & Absorption
Notes & Key : Scientific Method; Activity and Key: Can You Spot
the Scientific Method
SI Units
•Metric System is a decimal system based on multiples of 10.
1000
100
10
1
.1
.01
.001
Kilo-
Hecto-
Deca-
Unit
deci-
centi-
milli-
drinking
chocolate
milk.
(m,L,g)
King
Henry
Died
Monday
•M = Meter is the unit for length
•L = Liter is the unit for volume
•Cm3 = centimeters cubed is the unit for volume
•G = Gram is the unit for mass
•Degree or Celsius is the unit for temperature.
• Examples of Conversion Worksheet & Key
Tools Scientist Use
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Triple Beam Balance
Digital Electronic Scale
Ruler/Metric Stick
Goggles & Apron
Glassware
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Graduated cylinders
Flasks
Beakers
Slides & cover slips
Forceps (tweezers)
Microscopes
LINK: Tool of the Life Scientist
Microscopes
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first man to use a microscope to
see living organisms.
Types Microscopes
 Light Microscope & Compound Microscope
 Electron Microscope
 SEC
 TEM
 Monocular Microscope
 Binocular Dissecting Microscope
Microscope and their Function
LAB: Microscope & Pond Water
Links: Microscope Vocabulary Game
Classification
• Carolus Linnaeus
• Taxonomic Hierarchy
– KPCOFGS
– Binomial Nomenclature
• 6 Kingdoms
• Using Dichotomous Keys
http://www.park.edu/bhoffman/courses/bi225/labs/Dichotomous%20Keys%202.htm
• Viruses- non-living, therefore not a taxonomic group
http://www.biology-online.org/1/9_pathogens.html
Notes & Key: Viruses
6 Kingdoms
• Archaebacteria
previously Monera
Links:
http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
http://www.cellsalive.com/toc.htm#microbiol
• Eubacteria
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia
Comparing Kingdoms
•
•
•
•
Basic Structure: Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
# Cells: Unicellular vs. Multicellular
Energy: Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
Cell Wall Composition: cellulose, chitin,
peptidoglycan
Domain
Kingdom
Cell type
# cells
cell structures
mode of nutrition
example
Bacteria
Archaea
Eub act eria A rchaeb act eria Pro t ist a
Eukarya
F ung i
Plant ae
A nimalia
Ecology
Populations
Ecosystems
Succession
Humans and the Environment
Notes & Key: Ecology
Teacher Notes
Population
• Population size
– Refers to the number of individuals in a
population
– Factors that influence this size
• Abiotic – nonliving, such as temperature, moisture,
air, salinity, and pH
• Biotic – all the living organisms that inhabit the
environment
• Population density
– Refers to the number of individuals found
within a given area
– If too wide spread, they rarely encounter
each other – difficult to reproduce
• Dispersion
– Refers to the way in which the individuals of
the population are arranged
• Even – individuals are located at equal intervals
• Clumped – bunched together in clusters
• Random – location of each individual is determined
by chance
• Population Growth – population grows
when more individuals are born than die
• Carrying capacity – when a population has
reached the maximum size that the
environment can support
– Size is determined by limiting factors
– Food, water, shelter
• Populations living areas
– Habitat = the area in which an organism lives
– Niche = the role the organism has in an
ecosystem
• Population relationships
– Symbiosis – close association between two
different types of organisms – a scientific
‘living together’
• Mutualism – both organisms benefit (lichen)
• Commensalism – one organism benefits and the
other is neither harmed nor helped (epiphytes)
• Parasitism – one organism benefits and the other
is harmed (flea)
Ecosystems
• Energy Flow
– Producers - make their own food (green
plants, algae, some bacteria)
– Consumers - obtain their food from others
• Herbivores – primary consumers that eat plants
• Carnivores – secondary consumers that eat flesh
• Omnivores – secondary or tertiary consumers that
eat plants and flesh
• Decomposers – eat dead and decaying organisms
• Food Chain
– Trophic levels
• Clover
• Rabbit
• Snake
• Hawk
• Food Web
– Food chains that interconnect
– and overlap
• Pyramid of biomass
– Total mass of organisms at each trophic level
• Pyramid of numbers
– Number of organisms at each trophic level
• Pyramid of energy
– Amount of energy at each trophic level
– Each trophic level receives ~ 10% from the
next higher level
• Cycles
– Water cycle
• Nonliving
– Condensation, precipitation, evaporation
• Living
– Absorption, transpiration
• Carbon cycle
– Atmospheric carbon
– Photosynthesis
– Cellular respiration
• Nitrogen cycle
– Atmospheric nitrogen
– Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
– Nitrates
– Nitrites
– Plants
– Animals
– Decomposers
• Oxygen cycle
– Oxygen in air and water
– Cellular respiration
– Water
– Photosynthesis
Succession
• Populations in an area are replaced by
other populations
– Organisms make the environment less
conducive for their existence and more
conducive for the next level
• Primary succession – where life did not
exist before
– Pioneer species
– Continuing species change
– Climax community
– Ex. lichen, grasses, small bushes, small trees,
mature softwoods (pines, balsams, firs),
mature hardwoods (oaks, hickories)
• Secondary succession – where a prior
community was destroyed (by fire, flood,
volcanic eruption, abandoned farming,
mining, logging, etc.)
– Pioneer species
– Continuing species change
– Climax community
Humans and the Environment
• Conservation – Wise management of the
Earth’s natural resources
– Renewable resources
– Nonrenewable resources
• Renewable resources
– Wildlife
• Many threatened or endangered
• Extinction occurs when a species disappears from
Earth
• Habitat destruction is major cause
– Forests
• Becoming smaller due to increased demand for wood and
wood products
• Deforestation occurs where large areas of forest are cut and
cleared. Ex. tropical rainforests
–
–
–
–
Cut and burned to clear land for farming
Topsoil is thin, good for one, or maybe two, years
Then more must be cleared
When land is cleared, rain ceases as trees caused the rain
through transpiration
– Land becomes a desert
Reforestation is a solution
• Soil – good soil is needed to grow plants
for food and for fibers to make cloth
– Erosion can be prevented
• Windbreaks
• Contour plowing
• Terrace plowing
• Strip cropping
• Crop rotation
• Nonrewable resources
– Water
• Most important
• Cannot live without it
• Watersheds
• Desalination
Fossil Fuels
Coal, natural gas, oil
Alternative energy forms
solar energy
nuclear energy
wind power
geothermal energy
water energy
• Pollution
– Air pollution
• Most comes from burning fossil fuels
• Smog – smoke and fog
• Acid rain – oxides from burning fossil fuel combine with
moisture in air
• Temperature inversion
– Layer of warm air becomes trapped between layers of cool air
– Air pollutants become trapped in cool air
– Do not rise form the earth, stay near ground
– Water pollution
• Agricultural runoff
• Industrial waste products
– One major example is hot water
– Causes thermal pollution
– Hot water holds less oxygen than cold water
– Land pollution – when people do not properly
dispose of trash
• Destroys natural beauty of our land
• Killing animals that eat it or become trapped in it
• Recycling is an answer
• Some materials taken from:
• Biology by Dean Medley
• The Living World by George B. Johnson
Biochemistry
• Atomic Structure
• Elements- CHNOPS
• Water Chemistry
• pH scale
• 4 Major Groups of Macromolecules
• Nature of Enzymes
Atomic Structure
Nucleus: protons and neutrons
Orbitals: electrons, 8 electrons fills orbital
Protons + Neutrons = Atomic mass
Isotopes- differing # of neutrons
Proton # = Atomic Number = Electron #
Atomic Mass # - Proton number = Neutron #
# Electrons determines reactivity and bonding
Carbon easily bonds with several other atoms because it has only 4 electrons in outer
orbital
Covalent bonds- electrons are shared
Ionic bonds- electrons are lost or gained creating ions
which are attracted to each other
Links:
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/gcse.html
Bohr Model
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations/es0501/es0501page01.cfm
Elements
Most common in living things- CHNOPS
Water Chemistry/Properties
Polarity and effect on bonding
Properties-Excellent solvent, cohesive, adhesive, high specific heat, high heat of
vaporization, less dense when frozen
pH scale
Strong
acid
0
7
acids
neutral
14
basic (alkaline)
Most living things prefer neutral pH
Links:
http://www.uni.edu/~iowawet/H2OProperties.html
http://www.oceansonline.com/water_props.htm
Strong
base
4 Major Groups of Organic Molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
components
C, H, O
C, H, O
C, H, O, N
C, H, O, N, P
monomers
monosaccharide
(ex-glucose)
fatty acids and
glycerol
amino acids
nucleotides
lipid bilayer
(membranes) fat
(stored energy,
insulates)
hemoglobin
(transport)
enzymes
(catalysts)
antibodies
(defense)...
DNA (direct
protein synthesis)
RNA (role in
proteinsynthesis)
Polymers
examples &
function
starch, glycogen
(energy)
cellulose, chitin
(structural)
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze reactions. The
reaction may build a larger molecule or breakdown a
large molecule into parts.
Enzymes and substrates fit together like “lock and
key”.
Reaction rate is also affected by temperature and pH
because they may alter the shape of the enzyme.
Links: http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/animations/Enzyme%20activity.html
Lab: Catalase
Cells
• Cell Theory
– Three Statements of Cell Theory
• All living things are made of one or more cells
• The cell is the basic unit of life
• Cells come from preexisting cells.
– Scientist who helped Develop Cell Theory
• Robert Hooke – 1st Observed Cells (Cork Cells)
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek – 1st to see living cells (in pond
water).
• Matthias Schleiden – All plants are made of one or more
cells
• Theodor Schwann – All animals are composed of many
cells
• Rudolph Virchow – All cells come from preexisting cells.
Cells continued
• Types of Cells
– Prokaryotic
• Bacteria
– Eukaryotic
• Animal
• Plant
• Structure, Functions and
Analogies of Cell Parts
– Chart and Key
– Note cards
– Cell City
Cells continued
Animal
Cells continued
Plant
Cell
membrane
Cells continued
Prokaryotic
Cell Wall
Ribosomes
Flagella
Chromatin (DNA)
Cell Membrane
Cells Continue
Organelles
• In Animal & Plants
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear Membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Golgi Apparatus (Complex)
Cell Membrane
Ribosomes
Lysosome
ER = Endoplasmic
Reticulum (Rough & Smooth)
– Vacuole
Activity and Key: Cell Chart
• Only in Animal
– Centrioles
• Only in Plant
– Cell Wall
– Chloroplast
– LARGE Central Vacuole
Cells Continued
Diffusion & Osmosis
• Diffusion is the process by
which molecules spread from
areas of high concentration to
areas of low concentration.
When the molecules are even
throughout a space - it is called
EQUILIBRIUM
Osmosis
• the diffusion of water (across a
membrane)
• Selectively Permeable -
membranes that allow some
things through, the cell
membrane is selectively
permeable, water and oxygen
move freely across the cell's
membrane, by diffusion
Video: “Osmosis Jones” by Warner Brothers Family Entertainment
Photosynthesis & Respiration
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
(aka- Aerobic Respiration, Respiration)
Equation
CO2+H2O+light->C6H12O6+O2+H2O
Flow of energy
sun->producers (plants and algae)->consumers
Equation
C6H12O6+O2+H2O->CO2+H2O+ ENERGY (ATPs)
Glucose is broken down, energy is released and
tranferred into ATP molecules
Storage of energy
Glucose molecule has stored energy
Chloroplasts
ATP
Readily available energy for cell use
Adenosine Tri Phosphate
Mitochondria
Site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells
Autotrophic Organisms
Site of cellular respiration in eukaryotic cells
Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
Organisms
General Overview info with helpful illustrations:
Links: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/photosynth/overview.html
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cellresp/intro.html
The Evolution
of Living Things
Teacher Notes
What is a theory?
 Based
on educated guesses
Supported by evidence
Believed
by many to be true
NOT a proven fact. Could
be disproved by new
evidence.
a characteristic that helps
an organism survive and
reproduce in its environment.
Three examples of adaptations are:
structures for finding food
for protection
for moving from place to place
Group
of organisms that
can mate with one
another to produce
fertile offspring.
HOW MANY SPECIES EXIST?
Species of Hawaiian honeycreepers
Estimates of the Numbers of
Species in the World
Groups of
Organisms
Species
described
Maximum
estimates
Most conservative
estimates
Viruses
5,000
500,000
500,000
Bacteria
4,000
3,000,000
400,000
Fungi
70,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
Algae
40,000
10,000,000
200,000
Plants
250,000
500,000
300,000
Vertebrates
45,000
50,000
50,000
Nematodes
15,000
1,000,000
500,000
Mollusks
70,000
180,000
200,000
Crustaceans
40,000
150,000
200,000
Arachnids
75,000
1,000,000
750,000
Insects
950,000
100,000,000
8,000,000
Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Global Biodiversity - Status of the Earth's Living Resources, 1992.
•Scientists estimate the
Earth is 4.6 billion years
old
•Fossil evidence shows
that many species have
died out and many new
species have formed.
Process by which
populations accumulate
inherited changes over
time.
FOSSILS- remains of organisms
that have been preserved or
petrified in sediment (sand,
mud, or small rocks).
Newest/ Most Complex
Oldest/Simplest
“EVIDENCE” of EVOLUTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The Fossil Record
Vestigial Structures
Comparing Skeletal
Structures
Comparing DNA
Embryonic Structure
Salamander
Baleen Whale
Boa Constrictor
Vestigial Structures:
remnants of once used
structures.
Humerus
Radius
Pterodactyl
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Dolphin
Dog
Phalanges
Human
Bird
Bat
Flying
Seal
Swimming
Sheep
Running
Shrew
Grasping
Similar Skeletal Structures
Extinct dodo's DNA linked to
pigeons
British team tracks ancestry
of humans' first evolutionary
victim
David Perlman, Chronicle
Science Editor
Friday, March 1, 2002
The legendary dodo, a flightless bird extinct for more than 300 years, has yielded its
DNA for the first time, and scientists say it is related to pigeons in Southeast Asia and
even, though more distantly, to San Francisco's own flocks of the often-scorned
scavengers.
From a scrap of skin and a bit of bone, British biologists at Oxford University, together
with an American graduate student from Georgia, have created a fascinating genealogy
for the weird creature….
The genetic findings, along with the volcanic history of the islands in the Indian Ocean
where the bird originated, show that the dodos probably descended from an unknown
ancestral bird some 42 million years ago that flew from Africa to what are now the
Mascarene Islands east of Madagascar.
Two separate species of descendants -- the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) and a close,
flightless relative called the solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria) evolved some 26 million years
ago. Millions of years later, they took roost on two separate Indian Ocean islands: the
dodo on Mauritius and the solitaire on nearby Rodrigues.
DELICATE ANALYSIS
The evolutionary history comes from a delicate and difficult kind of DNA analysis ….
EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
Closely related organisms look alike during
early development; they look different as
they mature.
FOSSIL
RECORD: A historical
sequence of life indicated by
fossils found in the layers of the
Earth.
Gaps exist because specific
conditions are necessary to form
fossils. (Buried in fine sediment
without oxygen.)
DNA, RNA & Protein Synthesis
• DNA->RNA->Protein
(flow of genetic information, gene expression, central
dogma)
• History: Watson & Crick model
• Structure of DNA
• Meiosis/Gamete Production review
• DNA Replication Steps
• Importance/Function of Proteins
• Protein Synthesis- mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Chart and Key: Comparison of DNA and RNA
Teacher Notes: DNA, RNA, & Protein Synthesis
DNA
• Structure
– Polymer of nucleotides
– 4 nitrogen bases
– Complementary bases/pair rules
• Replication
–
–
–
–
Unzip double strand
Each strand serves as template
Free nucleotides bond to templates
Form replicated chromosomes- relate to cell cycle
•Link:
http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/animations/DNA%20Replication%20%20long%20.html
•Lab- build and manipulate DNA model
Proteins
• Strings of amino acids become proteins
• Proteins are the building blocks of life:
– Structural
– Enzymes
– Hormones
– Defense
– Transporters
No life possible without proteins….
Protein Synthesis
• Structure and Role of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
• Transcription
– Unwind DNA
– Form mRNA complementary strand to gene
– mRNA carries instructions to ribosome
• Translation
– mRNA attaches to ribosome (rRNA)
– tRNA brings amino acids to ribosome
– Codons of mRNA determine anticodon of tRNA and
consequently the amino acid order.
– Peptide bond form between amino acids and form polypeptide
– Polypeptide becomes functional protein
Link: http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/animations/Protein%20Synthesis.html
Lab- Model process
Activity- Draw, Color and label process Comparison of DNA and RNA table
• The Cell spends the majority of the time
in Interphase of the Cycle Cycle
• The rest of the time it spends in Mitosis
where the nucleus divides
• Once the nucleus divides, cytokinesis
begins separating the cell in two
G1 (Gets bigger)
A
T
M
P
S = Synthesis
G2 (Makes new organelles)
• Makes Body Cells (ex:Toe)
• Cell division of the cell &
nucleus occurs
• Cell division starts with one
cell & ends with two cells that
are exactly like the original
cell
• 4 Phases
• Prophase – chromosomes appear clearly
• Metaphase– chromosomes line in middle
• Anaphase – chromatids pull apart and
cytokinesis begins
• Telephase – chromosomes unwind and
cytokinesis ends
Chart & Key: Comparison on Mitosis & Meiosis
Links: Mitosis and Mitosis
NOTES:
MEIOSIS
Two Types of Cells
• Body cells (diploid cells): full set
chromosomes
Examples: all cells but sex cells
• Sex cells (haploid cells): half
number chromosomes
Examples: egg (ova) = female
sperm = male
HUMAN EXAMPLE:
body cells = 46 chromosomes or
23 homologous pairs
sex cells = 23 chromosomes
(one from each pair) see fig. 9, pg. 114
When sperm fertilizes egg, each parent
contributes 23 chromosomes (One from
each homologous pair)
23 (female) + 23 (male) = 46 chromosomes
total (23 homologous pairs)
How many TOTAL chromosomes
does each fly have?
8
How many HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES does each fly have?
4
MEIOSIS
•Cell division that makes sex
cells.
•Chromosomes copied once
•Nucleus divides twice
•1 cell makes 4
Link: Meiosis Worksheet
SEX CHROMOSOMES
• Carry genes that determine whether
offspring is male or female
• In humans:
– XX = female
• (egg only has X chromosome)
– XY = male
•(sperm contains either X or Y chromosome)
FATHER DETERMINES GENDER!
X passed on = girl, Y = boy
The passing of traits from
parent to offspring….
Teacher Notes
HUMAN GENETIC
INFORMATION
• Stored in 23 pairs of chromosomes
• Chromosome 1 = largest & is 3x bigger
than chromosome 22.
• 23rd pair of chromosomes = sex
chromosomes (X or Y)
• Chromosomes made of DNA.
• Genes = special units of chromosomal
DNA.
• CHROMOSOME 1:
OVER 3000 genes
• CHROMOSOME 14:
Approx. 1400 genes
• CHROMOSOME 19
Over 1700 genes
• CHROMOSOME 21
Over 400 genes
TERMS TO KNOW
• GENE: segments of DNA that carry
heredity instructions; located on
chromosomes & passed on from
parent to offspring.
• ALLELES: alternative (different) forms
of a gene that governs the same
characteristic. (One set of alleles from
mom & one from dad.)
• GENOTYPE: inherited
combination of alleles (The
genes you have – one set from
mom, one from dad!)
• PHENOTYPE: organisms inherited
appearance (What you physically
look like.)
IT’S A GAME OF CHANCE…
• PROBABILITY: mathematical chance that
an event will occur.
• DOMINANT TRAIT: trait observed when at
least one dominant allele for a
characteristic is inherited.
• RECESSIVE TRAIT: trait that is
observed when two recessive
alleles for a characteristic are inherited.
HOMOZYGOUS v.
HETEROZYOUS
• HETEROZYGOUS: If you have
contrasting (opposite) pairs of genes
for a trait. (Ex: you get a gene for
attached earlobes from mom and
unattached from dad.)
• HOMOZYGOUS: If you have two like
(same) genes for a hereditary trait.
(Ex.: you receive the gene from both
parent that allows you to roll your
tongue.)
WHAT ARE SOME TRAITS
THAT ARE INHERITED?
Checking out your genes….
FREE VS. ATTACHED EAR
LOBES
•Free earlobes are those that hang below the point
of attachment to the head.
•Attached ear lobes are attached directly to the side
of the head.
Hairline: Widow’s Peak v. Straight
Chin: Dimple or No Dimple?
Thumb: Straight or Curved?
CHEEKS: DIMPLES OR NOT
ONE CHEEK WITH A DIMPLE IS A YES!
PINKY: BENT OR STRAIGHT?
Straight
Bent
TOES: LONGEST SECOND TOE
OR LONGER BIG TOE?
TONGUE: ROLL IT OR NOT?
FOLDED HANDS: LEFT OR
RIGHT THUMB ON TOP?
FRECKLES OR NOT?
A little about Mendel….
•
•
•
•
Lived during the 1800’s
Austrian monk
Noticed patterns of inheritance
Studied the ways traits are passed from
parents to offspring
• Discoveries not noticed for many years
MENDEL STUDIED PEAS
THREE REASONS:
1. Grow quickly
2. Usually self-pollinating. (Have
both male & female reproductive
parts.)
3. Many varieties
CONTROLLED EXPERIMENTS
Cross-pollination: anthers (male) of one plant
are removed so that it cannot self-pollinate. The
pollen from another plant is used to fertilize the
plant without anthers.
VOCABULARY:
• TRUE-BREED: A plant that always
produces offspring with traits the same as
the parent(s). Also called: PUREBRED or
HOMOZYGOUS
• CROSS-BREED: Crossing two plants that
had different forms of the same trait.
(Example: white flower with pink flower.)
Produces: HYBRID or HETEROZYGOUS
MENDEL’S 1st EXPERIMENT
•Studied 7 different characteristics
•Used true-breeding plants (ex. TT with tt)
•Each of the crosses was between two
traits.
(Example: flower color purple vs.
white)
•The offspring were first generation. (F1)
A FEW OF THE TRAITS
STUDIES BY MENDEL:
Similar results for each of the crosses – one trait
always appeared the other trait seemed to
disappear.
• DOMINANT: The name that Mendel gave to the
trait that always appeared.
• RECESSIVE: The name that Mendel gave to
the trait that seemed to disappear.
Flower Color
F = purple
f = white
F
f
F
Ff
Ff
V
f
Quiz Review
Ff
Ff
Some More Vocabulary:
•P generation: Parent Generation.
•F1 generation: First filial generation (i.e.
1st generation after parents)
•F2 generation: Generation produced
from self-pollination of F1 generation.
MENDEL’S 2nd EXPERIMENT
•F1 generation allowed to self-pollinate.
•OUTCOME?? Recessive trait appeared.
•Recessive trait showed up again but not as
often as the dominant trait.
•Mendel calculated the ratio of dominant to
recessive. (3:1)
Each plant had two sets of instructions
(genes) – one from each parent.
These two forms of the same gene are
known as “ALLELES”.
Genotype both parents = heterozygous
Parent 1 = Ff , Parent 2 = Ff
F
F
f
Ff
FF
V
f
Ff
ff
Classification
• End of the year, after SOL
– Material to cover
• Plant Phyla
• Animal Phyla
– Mind Maps/Posters, Group work
– Outdoor Scavenger hunts
– Wildflower Collections
SOL Preparation
• http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/Assessment/releasedtests.html
• http://etest.ncs.com/Customers/Virginia/pat_home.htm
• http://www.virginiasol.com/test_grade10.htm
• http://schoolisland.com
Projects, Inquiry Investigation
• There are literally millions of website full
of experiments.
• Easy experiments will teach scientific
method and reinforce or introduce
students to new biological concepts.
• Excellent websites for science activities:
Links: http://ei.cornell.edu
http://www.epa.gov/epahome/educational.htm
SOURCES
• Holt, Rinehart, Winston. (2002) Life
Science.
• Images: Google.com
• Movie: www.unitedstreaming.com