Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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Assessment 3 – Draft Journal
Group & Organization Management Journal
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Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
Running Head: Moderesting factor to job satisfaction
Moderesting factor to job satisfaction; Why satisfied banking employees leave
the organization?
Warayu Thienpramuk
University of South Australia
2
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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Abstract
With regards to determinants of employee turnover, many past studies have
found that job dissatisfactions are sufficient to determine the turnover intention
(Dole, & Schroeder, 2001). However, there are other researchers who have argued
that job dissatisfaction should not be sufficiently used as determinant of turnover
intention, there should be the possible impact of other variables (Aranya et al., 1982;
Aranya and Ferris, 1984; Omundson et al., 1997). While previous researches typically
associate with decreased job satisfaction and increased turnover, this present research
suggests that intervening variables, such as job mobility, influence employee
intentions to turnover. This finding represents one of dimensions in this area of
research.
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Introduction
The coming of the 21st century brings with it challenges for businesses that
want to enjoy a competitive edge over their rivals. This would need to include having
a work force that is stable and reliable. An increasing amount of research suggests
implementation of high performance work practices to reduce voluntary turnover.
These high performance work systems are an approach to an organization’s drive to
improve its production, service delivery, and quality to its customers (Huselid, 1995).
They may include employee recruitment and selection procedures, remuneration
incentives, performance appraisal systems such as 360-degree feedback, and training,
education and development that improve the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the
employee. These are aimed at increasing the employee’s motivation and effectively
enhancing the retention of high performers within the organization (Barrick &
Zimmerman, 2005; Huselid, 1995). Huselid (1995) has found direct evidence that
these human resource management practices have a direct impact by lowering
employee turnover, raising productivity, and improving financial performance. This
study has shown the significance of the research problem in banking industry of
Thailand by following these reasons;
Firstly, For Thailand, the national development plan guidelines could be seen
in the National Economic and Social Development plan, which have been
implemented since 1961 as the first plan. Until now it has been about 46 years, and
currently we are in the tenth version of the National economic and Social
Development plan. It has been heavily focused on the economic development and the
Thai government had tried to gear the nation towards the so-called new industrialized
country or “NIC” (Office of National Economic and Social Development Board,
2007).
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In order to achieve the nation plan, every organization and industry are the
important key. The banking industry plays a central role in economy as a tools for
monetary policy. The economy would be unable to function without the many forms
of bank services. Banks extend loans to businesses and private persons, making it
possible for them to invest. Furthermore, they handle payments and securities
transactions, manage savings, and advise and guide enterprises when they go public
(Clark Medal, 1977).
Secondly, there are evidences from Thai Bank Association show that the
turnover rates of Thai bank staff are increasing every year without explained reason.
Since year 2006 -2007, the average turnover rates are 4.6% and 5.2% respectively
(compare to another industry in financial sector, average turnover rate only 3.5% in
insurance industry) and the research department of Thai Bank Association predicts
that it will be higher this year 2008. Although there are relevant studies on employee
turnover in Thailand but I have not found the research focus in Banking Industry in
Thailand.
Thirdly, in the context of the Free trade agreement (FTA), for the local banks,
there are evidences that foreseen implications on the costs side can be summarized by
reduced profitability due to higher competition (Saad Al Jundi, 2005). Lefkowitz
(1967:8) has indicated that turnover has generated high cost to the industry. Some of
the more important costs include recruitment costs (advertising), the personnel
department’s interviewing time, the costs of physical examinations, orientation and
training cost, non-productive on-the-job training time (for the new employee, his
supervisor, and any older employee to whom training may be delegated), payroll
processing costs, personnel staff processing costs and lower production or additional
overtime for other workers filling in until a replacement is found.
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As a result of major changes in the banking industry and the increasing
financial and competitive pressures, many banking institutions have become keenly
interested in identifying the causes of staff turnover. Identification and management
of staff turnover clearly can improve the financial well being and long-term survival
of banking institutions in an increasingly competitive market.
The present research has four goals. First, we review the literature on the job
satisfaction and intent to turnover relationship. Second, we examine the moderating
factors influence on job satisfaction and intent to turnover relationship. Third, we
empirically test our hypothesized relationships between these variables. Finally, we
discuss the implications of our model and our results.
Theoretical background, review of literature, and hypotheses development
Decreasing employee turnover as the key to create an organization’s competitive
advantage
In recent decades, academic literature has argued that the human resources
(HR) of the firm are potentially the sole source of sustainable competitive advantage
for organizations (Kochan and Dyer, 1993; Pfeffer, 1994). These works have drawn
on the resource-based view of the firm and have argued that few of the more
traditional sources of sustainable competitive advantage create value in a manner that
is rare, non-imitable, and non-substituable (Ferris et al., 1999). Following the
resource-based view of the firm theory it has been argued that more attention must be
paid to the resources required to execute strategies (Barney, 1991; Teece et al., 1997).
One such key resource is the human capital of an organization – its workforce.
Following Lee and Miller (1999), a dedicated and talented workforce may serve as a
valuable, scarce, non imitable resource that can help firms execute an appropriate
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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positioning strategy. Thus, Organizational HR practices have received increased
attention of late for their effects on an important outcome variable, turnover. Staff
retention has become the leading challenge facing many human resources
departments.
The term “turnover” has been defined by many scholars such as Price (1975)
who defined turnover as “the degree of movement across the membership boundary of
an organization. These movements are individuals either coming into the organization
or leaving the organization”. Mobley (1982) defined labor turnover as “the cessation
of membership in an organization by an individual who received monetary
compensation from the organization.” He distinguished between voluntary separation
(employee-initiated) and involuntary separation (organization-initiated, plus death and
mandatory retirement). He further mentioned that “turnover is not all bad, and is
important to organizations, individuals and society” (Mobley, 1982). Tracey (1991)
defined labor turnover as “the changes in the composition of the work force due to
termination. The importance of turnover lies in its effect on employee morale,
recruitment and hiring and firing cost”. Lefkowitz (1967) defined labor turnover as
“potentially successful employees leaving the company, whatever the cause or
circumstances”.
Mobley (1982) focuses on consequences of turnover from different
perspectives: organizational, individual and social. In term of organizational
consequences, Mobley (1982) purports that cost carried by organizational include 1)
acquisition cost such as recruitment, selection and placement, 2) learning costs,
including training cost and lost of the trainer’s time, and 3) separation cost, including
direct costs of separation pay and indirect costs from loss of efficiency prior to
separation and the cost of the vacant position during the search time. Mobley (1982)
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further stated that turnover negatively affects worker cohesiveness, disrupts
performance, disrupts social and communication patterns, lowers morale of others,
and forces implementation of different control strategies. Mobley (1982), however,
indicates negative consequences for individuals, such as disruption of social and
communication pattern, loss of functionally valued coworkers, decreased satisfaction,
and increased workload during and immediately after searches for replacements and
decreased cohesion and commitment. In term of social consequence, some possible
negative consequences explained by Mobley (1982) are plant costs due to lack of
employees and the inability to attract and retain a competent work force. He further
revealed that in the early 1970’s, high levels of turnover increased the cost of
production and even resulted in idle productive capacity due to a lack of trained
operators in the industry. In literature, turnover intention has been identified as the
immediate precursor for turnover behaviour (Mobley, Horner & Hollingsworth, 1978;
Tett & Meyer, 1993). It has been recognised that the identification of variables
associated with turnover intentions is considered an effective strategy in reducing
actual turnover levels (Maertz & Campion, 1998).
Extensive empirical research has been carried out on the linking of HR
practices and employee turnover, especially at the organizational level (Shaw et al.,
1998; Delery et al., 2000). Boselie et al. (2005) were able to identify 27 empirical
articles on HR and turnover in the time period 1994-2003. Retaining staff is usually a
far better investment than the cost of recruiting replacements (Mitchell et al., 2001;
Farrel, 2001). For example, turnover rate moderates the curvilinear relationship
between social capital losses and performance (Shaw et al., 2005). However, little
explanation has been offered for how HR practices influence individual turnover
decisions (Guest, 1999; Allen et al., 2003).
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Turnover intentions
Turnover intentions refer to an individual's estimated probability that they will
leave an organisation at some point in the near future. Turnover intentions are
identified as the immediate precursor to turnover behaviour (Mobley, Horner, &
Hollingsworth, 1978; Tett & Meyer, 1993).
Employees may exit an organisation either voluntarily or involuntarily. For the
purpose of this research, ‘turnover intention’ is defined as an employees decision to
leave an organisation voluntarily (Dougherty, Bluedorn & Keon, 1985; Mobley,
1977). Employees leave for a number of reasons, some to escape negative work
environments, some are more in alignment with their career goals, and some to pursue
opportunities that are more financially attractive. Involuntary turnover is usually
employer initiated, where the organisation wishes to terminate the relationship due to
incompatibilities in matching its requirements. Involuntary turnover can also include
death, mandatory retirements, and ill health (Mobley, 1977).
In literature, turnover intention has been identified as the immediate precursor
for turnover behaviour (Mobley, Horner & Hollingsworth, 1978; Tett & Meyer,
1993). It has been recognised that the identification of variables associated with
turnover intentions is considered an effective strategy in reducing actual turnover
levels (Maertz & Campion, 1998).
Job satisfaction and Turnover intention relationship
Many past studies have found that job dissatisfactions are sufficient to
determine the turnover intention (Dole & Schroeder, 2001). The relationship of job
satisfaction with turnover intentions is well documented (Abdel-Halim, 1981; Choo,
1986, Rasch and Harrell, 1990). Research investigating this relationship was designed
to measure the correlation between job satisfaction and turnover intentions and
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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initially found an inverse association between job satisfaction and turnover intentions.
The empirical findings and the advice to organizations are clear. Increase job
satisfaction to decrease turnover intention, with the converse of those relationships
being true, as well (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Verquer et al., 2003). Thus, we make
the following hypothese.
H1: Job satisfaction and intent to turnover are negatively related, such that
participants reporting high levels of job satisfaction will also report low levels of
intent to turnover.
With regards to the relationship between Job satisfaction and Turnover
intention, some researchers have supported the strong relationship between the two
constructs (Spector, 1997) that job satisfaction is sufficient to determine turnover
intention, while some others still question this relationship (Jawahar and Pegah
Hemmasi, 2006). Moreover, in the recent studies, there are other researchers who
have argued that job satisfaction should not be sufficiently used as determinant of
turnover intention, there should be the possible impact of other variables (Aranya et
al., 1982; Aranya and Ferris, 1984; Omundson et al., 1997). Lee and Mitchell (1994)
theorized that job dissatisfaction could indeed result in turnover but that it was more
likely that other factors would act as moderators to the turnover intention.
Moreover, recent empirical studies have shown a weak relationship between
the two constructs (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Verquer et al., 2003). Indeed, the weak
relationship suggests that more employees remain in organization despite the lack of
job satisfaction. These empirical finding lead to question why unsatisfied employee
still remain in organization and why satisfied employees leave the organization, which
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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is the exact purpose of the present research. These issues, we feel, can be attributed to
the lack of a clear theoretical framework that explains how job satisfaction triggers
turnover intention.
Job satisfaction – job mobility – intent to turnover relationship
Unfolding model of voluntary turnover
Lee and Mitchell (1994) proposed a novel job search theory called the
unfolding model of voluntary turnover (UMVT). Historically, turnover researchers
viewed two variables as key to understanding why employees voluntarily leave
organizations: job satisfaction and perceived job alternatives (Hulin et al., 1985).
Mobley (1977) proposed that job dissatisfaction led to a linear series of cognitive
evaluations, starting with initial thoughts of leaving the job followed by the
comparison between the current job and possible job alternatives, and ending with
intentions to leave the organization. Lee and Mitchell (1994) argued that while this
linear decision-making process intuitively appeals to many researchers, the equivocal
empirical support for these types of models suggests that voluntary turnover was more
complex than previously thought. However, the UMVT does not nullify the
traditional models of turnover as much as it incorporates and expands these models.
Lee et al. (1996) summarize that “factors other than affect can initiate the turnover
process, employees may or may not compare a current job with alternatives, and a
compatibility judgment . . . may be used”.
The UMVT is theoretically grounded in Beach’s (1990) image theory. Image
theory describes the process of how individuals process information during decisionmaking. Beach argues that individuals seldom have the cognitive resources to
systematically evaluate all incoming information, so individuals instead simply and
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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quickly compare incoming information to more enduring heuristic-type decisionmaking alternatives. Beach considered this comparative process a default or status
quo decision-making process. Lee and Mitchell (1994) reasoned that expected or
unexpected dramatic events, or shocks, to an individual’s status quo decision-making
process would lead to a series of possible job search paths. Image theory asserts that
these existing status quo decision-making processes are context bound. That is,
individuals possess mental images that represent specific domains of their lives (e.g.
work, family, friends, etc.) that act as behavioral guides for specific environments
(Mitchell and Beach, 1990). In decision-making situations, where individuals will
scan the environment for information, these idiosyncratic images, which are akin to
heuristics, are the default behavioral guides to which all other alternative information
is compared (Beach, 1990). The key to understanding the UMVT centers on the
fallout from experiencing a shock. In essence, a shock can cause individuals to
reassess existing idiosyncratic images, which in some instances will cause image
violation (Lee and Mitchell, 1994). That is, in some cases, individuals can receive
information that shocks the decision-making process into abandoning existing images
for newly created images. Lee and Mitchell (1994) assert that job search is typically a
function of shocks, which cause individuals to scrap status quo reasoning (i.e.
remaining with the current organization) in lieu of alternative decision-making
processes.
Lee and Mitchell (1994) identified four alternative decision-making paths by
which individuals can travel in the job search process. Path 1 begins with a shock,
which causes individuals to scan previous experiences for similarities to the present
shock. Should the present shock match a past decision-making event and should the
outcome of that previous experience be judged in retrospect as being the correct
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
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decision to make, individuals will simply follow the same decision-making process
that was successful in the past event. Path 2 describes how a shock leads individuals
to reassess their commitment to the organization, and the shocks that trigger the
turnover decision-making process cause individuals to assess fit with the organization,
even if no other job alternatives are present. The shocks resulting in path 3 cause
individuals to assess whether or not their commitment could be associated with a
different organization. The decision-making process in path 3 requires explicit
comparisons between an individual’s current organization and at least one possible
alternative. In path 3, the shock induced assessment and directly leads to increases in
job dissatisfaction, which then results in the scanning for possible job alternatives. If
the individual believes that a job alternative will not provide better than the current
job, that individual will remain with their current organization (e.g. stay to avoid
image violation). On the other hand, if the individuals believe that they will be
achieved by working for another organization that individuals will likely decide to
leave the current organization. Finally, path 4 describes how individuals simply
change over time and reassess commitment to an organization. That is, no shock
occurs to stimulate job search; however, affective responses to daily organizational
life (e.g. commitment and job satisfaction) over time can cause individuals to turnover
even without suitable job alternatives. Path 4 most closely resembles the traditionally
sequential models of turnover, with job dissatisfaction leading to search of job
alternatives and subsequent intention to turnover. In the present research, we assert
that the UMVT, specifically paths 2, 3 and 4, directly relate to this study and explain
how and why the moderate factors will lead some to leave the organization while
others will remain.
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Consistent with both traditional sequential models of turnover (e.g. Mobley,
1977) and the unfolding model of voluntary turnover (UMVT), Wheeler et al. (2005)
include perceived job mobility, which is defined as an individual’s perception of
available alternative job opportunities, as a key moderating variable between causes
of the decision to turnover. An employee experience job dissatisfaction, the likelihood
of an employee leaving the organization depends on that employee’s perceptions of
available job alternatives.
In the UMVT, job dissatisfaction causes individuals to scan the environment
for possible job alternatives. If no suitable job alternatives exist, the individual will
remain with the organization. Thus, we expect perceived job mobility to moderate the
relationship between job satisfaction and intent to turnover. Moreover, we expect this
interaction to explain how high levels of job dissatisfaction coupled with low
perceptions of job mobility lead to reduced intent to turnover compared with high
levels of both job dissatisfaction and job mobility. Thus we make the following
hypothesis.
H2. Participant perceived job mobility moderates the relationship between job
satisfaction and intent to turnover, such that participants who perceive high levels of
job mobility but report low levels of job satisfaction will also report higher levels of
intent to turnover compared to participants who perceive low job mobility and low job
satisfaction.
Job Mobility
H2
(-)
Overall Job
Satisfaction
H1
(-)
Turnover
Intension
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Method
The population and sample size
The unit of population analysis in this study is the individual staffs who work
fulltime in every Thai bank during the year 2008. Questionnaires will be administered
to that staffs who has been working with the institution for at least a period of 12
months. The staff must have been working in the organization long enough to able to
specify, recognize and get acquainted with the working environment.
For this research, I will determine number of sample size based on the
equation of Taro Yamane’s (1967) which is commonly used by many researchers
(e.g. Dane, 1997; Christo, 1994; Sarah, 1994) as shown below.
n = N / [1 + N(e)2]
n = Sample size
N = Total population
e = Sampling error (0.05)
N= Population: Thai Bank staffs
The Thai Bank Association has presented that presently there are approximately
80,000 Full Time - Thai bank staffs (exclude the manager and executive level).
Calculation are shown as below:
Moderesting factor toJob satisfaction
N =
16
80,000
[1 + 80,000(0.05)2]
=
80,000
201
By Calculating from Yamane’s equation:
Total Sample size will be:
n = 398.01
n >= 399
Sample and data collection
A total of 452 fulltime employed participants completed a HTML-based web
survey however we excluded data collected from 34 of the participants due to
incomplete responses. Due to in the consent form and guideline in first page of
questionnaire, we stated that the participants may withdraw from the research project
at any stage and that this will not affect in the future. Therefore, a total of 418 fulltime
employed participants completed the survey with their own intention. Moreover, a
HTML-based web survey gives the participants an opportunity to read questions and
answer them carefully.
Since the questionnaire will be sent to Thai bank staff. The Thai bank
employee association was the main distribution channel to send the e-mail directly to
each staff through intranet system. The distribution of questionnaire through this
process received a good response because it comes from government agency’s
request.
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Pre-test was conducted on 20 sample respondents in order to help the
questionnaire modification and to assess the validity and applicability of the
measures.
Measures
As mentioned, all participants completed our survey instrument on-line. For
the completion of the web-based survey, all attitudinal and behavioral items (unless
otherwise noted) were anchored on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 = “totally
disagree” to 7 = “totally agree.” Midpoints (values of 4) were anchored with the word
“neutral.” The items in each scale were summed and then averaged to arrive at an
overall value for the scale. Higher scores represent higher levels of each of the
constructs.
Job satisfaction. We measured job satisfaction using questions developed by
Cammann et al. (1979). A sample item is “All in all, I am satisfied with my job.”
Perceived job mobility. We measured perceived job mobility questions
developed by McAllister (1995). A sample item is “If I were to quit my job, I could
find another job that is just as good.”
Intent to turnover. We measured participant intent to turnover using questions
developed by Seashore et al.’s (1982). A sample item is “I will probably look for a
new job in the next year.”
Results
We are during data analysis process.
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18
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