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 What
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do we mean when we say:
“She has a wonderful personality”
“ He has no personality”
“He seems to have a personality conflict”
“It’s just her personality”
“ She has her mother personality”
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“Personality” comes from Latin word persona.
Persona  means ‘mask’.
The study of personality can be understood as
the study of ‘mask’ that people wear.
Personality are the personas that people project
and display.
Personality also includes the inner parts of
psychological experiences which we collectively
call our “self” (I)
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Personality is “I”
 When you say “I”  you are in fact
summing up everything about yourself:
◦ Your likes
◦ Your dislikes
◦ Your fears and virtues
◦ Your strengths & weaknesses
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The entire organization of a human being at any
stage of development.
The integrations of those systems or habits that
represent an individuals’s characteristic
adjustments to the environment.
The way in which a person does such things
as remembering, thinking or loving.
The various enduring and distinctive patterns of
behavior and thought that are characteristics of a
particular person.
Patterns of behavior, thoughts and emotions
unique to an individual, & the way they interact
to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to
other people and situation.
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Personality is not an existing substantive entity
to be searched for but a complex construct to be
developed and defined by the observer [Smith &
Vetter, 1982]
Personality usually refers to the distinctive
patterns of behavior (including thoughts &
emotions) that characterize each individual’s
adaptation to the situations of his or her life
[Mischel, 1976]
Personality is a dynamic organization, inside the
person, of psychophysical systems that create a
person’s characteristic pattern of behavior,
thoughts and feelings. [Carver & Scheier, 2000]
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Dynamic Organization
◦ Suggest on going readjustments, adaptation to
experience, continual upgrading and maintaining of self.
◦ Personality doesn’t just lie there  but has process and
it’s organized.
 Inside the person
◦ Suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting the
notion that personality influences behaviors, etc.
 Psychophysical System
◦ The physical is “who we are”
 Characteristics Patterns
◦ Implies that consistency/continuity which are unique to
each individual.
 Behavior, Thoughts & Feelings
◦ Indicate that personality includes a wide range of
psychological experience/ manifestation, ie. Personality is
displayed MANY ways.
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Self is the collections of beliefs that we
hold about ourselves
◦ E.g. What are our important characteristics?
◦ What are we good at?
◦ What do we do poorly at?
◦ What kind of situations do we prefer or avoid?
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Self have 2 distinct meaning:
◦ Self as an object
◦ Self as a process
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Attitude about our self.
 A picture of the way we look and act.
 The impact we make on others.
 Our traits, abilities, weakness or
strengths.
 Our feelings, perceptions and evaluations.
◦ E.g. I am handsome, I am cute, I am
friendly,
◦ I am bad, I am ugly
 Thus Self Concept is the collection of
beliefs we hold about who we are.
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Relates to psychological process  process by
which we manages and copes, thinks,
remembers, perceives and plans
The evaluation we make of ourselves (the value
that people place on themselves, whether they
are fundamentally good or bad people, talented
or not).
◦ E.g. I think I am very good in mathematic
I’m sure I have lots of friends
I feel I do not have much to be proud of
High self esteem people have a clear sense of
what their personal qualities are, think well of
themselves, set appropriate goals and cope
successfully with difficult situations.
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Each individual is unique.
 It is commonly observed that individuals
differ in Personality, motivations and
emotions
 Studies on individual Differences examine
HOW and WHY individual differs?
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One cool September morning, Mark Wellman, a
paraplegic, & his friend Mike Corbett began to climb a
nearly vertical slope of Half Dome, rising over 2,200 ft
from the ground. For this climb Mark trained everyday.
Some years ago, while on a different climb, he fell 50
feet to the ground, hurt his back & now paralyzed from
waist down. In this climb, Mike takes the lead and sets
supports. Because Mark’s leg are paralyzed, he climbs
by using supports to pull himself up inch by inch. By
end of day seven, Mark & Mike were very exhausted.
They had to sleep hanging in sleeping bags
anchored to the sheer granite wall. Finally, on day 13,
Mark pulled himself up the last six inches and over
the top of Half Dome.
What is Mark doing? Why did he do it?
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Motivation comes from the same root as motion
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◦ i.e. something that “moves” a person.
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According to Morris & Maisto (1999), Motive is
an inner directing force  a specific need or
want  that arouses the organism and directs
its behavior towards a goal.
All motives are triggered by stimulus, such as:◦ A bodily need
 E.g. hunger, thirst
◦ A cue in the environment
 E.g. Saw a McDonald advertisement  feels hungry
◦ A feelings
 Eg. Loneliness, guilt, anger
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When one or more stimulus create a
motive, the result is Goal- directed
behavior.
STIMULUS
MOTIVE
BEHAVIOR
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Instincts – innate factors
 Needs & Drives
 Incentives
 Beliefs & expectations
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Instinct is a specific, inborn behavior patterns that
determine the behavior of a being.
Instinct is a goal-directed behavior that is the
characteristic of entire species.
Sigmund Freud & Konrad Lorenz (1950)
◦ Viewed motivated behaviors as outlets for
instinctive energies
◦ Belief that specific energies accumulated in
the nervous system & had to be released in
one way or another.
William James (1890’s)  types of instincts:
◦ hunting, fear, rivalry, curiosity, shyness, love,
shame, resentment.
In1920’s psychologist proposed over 6,000
instincts to encompass every kind of human
motivation.
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But by 1930’s, instinct theory became
unpopular in explaining human
motivation behavior.
 Reasons:
◦ Most significant human behavior is
not inborn, but learned thru’
experiences.
◦ Human behavior is not rigid, but
flexible and always changing.
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Needs
◦ A biological state in which the organism
lacks something essential for survival.
◦ E.g. Food, water, oxygen.
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The NEED produces a DRIVES  which is a
state of arousal (or state of tension) during which
the organism engages in behaviors to reduce
the need.
Once Need is satisfied  the body returns to
and remain in a more balanced state  which is
call HOMEOSTSIS.
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Needs + Drive + Homeostasis = DriveReduction Theory
A Drive-Reduction Theory is when:
◦ A need results in a drive  which in turn
arouses the organism to engage in
behaviors to reduce the need and return the
body to homeostasis.
Behavior is directed towards reducing a state
of bodily tension or arousal.
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 Sometimes
Drive reduction theory doesn’t explain
all motivated behavior.
 Situations: How to explain this?
a.Sometimes when we are bored, we tend to
seek out activities that heighten tension &
arousal.
b.We just had our lunch  but the sight &
smell of a cheese cake makes us hungry.
 Some psychologist belief that our behavior is
motivated by unconscious drives.
 Thus, sometimes object in the environment,
called INCENTIVES  can also motivate behavior.
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Incentives
◦ External stimulus that prompts goaldirected behavior
◦ Reinforces, goals or rewards that may
be positive or negative and that
motivates ones behavior.
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Need & Drive occur inside the body.
Incentives  occur outside the body (external
rewards)
According to incentives perspectives
◦ We are motivated to perform a certain act
or behavior because we wish to obtain the
incentives (praise, recognition, reward).
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WHY MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN?
DOES MARK CLIMB TO OBTAIN INCENTIVES?
◦ May be  to obtain recognition in the form of
national press coverage, invitations for speaking,
donations from corporate sponsors.
But incentives alone is unlikely to explain Marks’s
motivation to engage in a life threatening behavior?
◦ So what other factor influence him?
◦ What motivate him/us to continue performing the
same behavior after our need is already met?
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Extrinsic motivation
◦ Influences us to perform behaviors to
reduce biological needs or obtain various
incentives.
Intrinsic motivation
◦ Influences us to perform behaviors because the
behavior themselves are personally rewarding or
because we are following our personal goals, belief or
expectations.
◦ Emphasize on self-determination, which combines the
feelings that we are behaving according to our
chosen expectations and goals  with the belief that
we are in control of the situation.
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WHY DOES MARK CLIMB THE MOUNTAIN?
DID MARK CLIMB BECAUSE OF PERSONAL
SATISFACTION?
◦ May be  Marks belief that:
 climbing itself is rewarding
 climbing allow him to be in control of the
situation
 climbing is a way for him to fulfill his own
personal goals and expectations
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Primary motivations
◦ Such as desire for food and water 
serve obvious biological needs
 Secondary motivations
◦ Serve biological needs indirectly  ie.
To satisfy primary motivation
◦ Develop as a result of specific
learning experiences
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We learn secondary motivation (SM)
because they help us to satisfy primary
motivation (PM)
◦ We learn desire for money (SM), because it help
us to obtain food, water, clothing, shelter
(P.M).
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Sometimes, SM develops due to own
reasons/goals (independent from PM)
◦ Collect coins/stamps  hope to make profit
or because the collections leads to praise from
other coin/stamps ethuziasts.
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Human may have unlimited number of SM but a
limited number of PM (because the biological
needs of the body is limited).
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Emotion refers to the experience of
such feelings as fear, joy, surprise or
anger.
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Cognitive component
◦ (conscious/subjective experience)
◦ E.g. Thinking what to do
 Physiological arousal
◦ Increase heart rate & rush of adrenaline
 Overt behavior
◦ Action than can be observed
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Emotions also activate & Affect behavior  but it
is more difficult to predict the kind of behavior
that a particular emotion will prompt:- If a man is hungry  he will seek food.
◦ If he experience joy/happiness  he will cry,
shout, jump, laugh? (difficult to predict his
action)
Emotions are intertwined with and give rise to
motivations.
Both motives & emotions  push us to take
some kind of action.
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Basic Emotions are emotions that are either
recognize in most cultures or help the species
survive my motivating behaviors or signaling
physiological needs and physiological moods
(Ortony & Turner)
Hierarchy of Basic Emotion
Pleasant
Love
Joy
Unpleasant
Surprise
Anger
Sadness
fear
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Reasons:
◦ Help explain our complex emotional
experiences
◦ Researchers agree that emotion are
important to the physical &
psychological well being on the
individual & the survival of our species.
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Peripheral theories
◦ That emphasize on changes in the body.
◦ James-Lange theory (proposed by William
James & Carl Lang separately in the 1800s)
◦ Facial Feedback theory
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Cognitive theories
◦ That emphasize on cognitive factors
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So, What causes an emotion such as fear?
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According to James-Lange theory:◦ Emotions result from specific physiological
changes in our bodies, and each emotion has
a different physiological basis.
◦ Pattern of physiological arousal as the major
cause of emotions.
3 steps in James-Lang Theory:
◦ We perceive stimulus (dog) in our environment  affect
the autonomic nervous system.
◦ The autonomic nervous system causes a specific
physiological arousal  increase heart beat, blood
pressure, breathing  different pattern of physiological
for each emotion.
◦ Brain then interpret each pattern of physiological
arousal as different emotion.
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Sensation or feedback from the movement of facial
muscles and skin are interpreted by our brain
and result in an emotion.
Originated from Charles Darwin who believe
that each emotion has its own innate pattern of
facial muscle movement.
3 steps:
◦ We perceive a stimulus as a dog in our environment
the perception results in movement of the muscles and
skin of the face.
◦ Specific feedback from muscles and skin of the face is
interpreted by the brain and give rise to emotional
experience.
◦ Each different pattern of facial movement is interpreted
by the brain ad different emotion.
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Consider a situation:
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How did Tony feel when he won the lottery?
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◦ “Tony won a million dollar lottery. As he showed every one
his winning ticket, he smiled and laughed and felt his
heart pounding. He couldn’t stop thinking about all the
things his millions would buy”
Emotion and motivation are closely link.
Tony is motivated to show his tickets to all his friends
and plan how to use the money
Thinking about or appraising a situation can greatly
influence an emotional experience.
◦ Thinking about buying a car increases Tony’s happiness.
◦ Thinking about a large chunk of his winning going to
taxes might make him a little unhappy
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Emotions help us adapt and survive
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Emotions Motivate and arouse
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Emotions express social signals
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Crying alert others that we may be in
pain/discomfort
Showing disgust may signal the presence of
poisonous or rotten food
Feeling angry/afraid  help us survive a dangerous
situation – escape
Feeling happy motivate social activities, bring
peace of mind, and provide a chance to relax
and enjoy life
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Emotions motivate new behavior but it can
also disrupt behavior
There is a relationship between
physiological arousal that accompany an
emotion, with our performance on tasks 
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Yerkes-Dodson Law  Performance on a
task depends on the amount of
physiological arousal and the difficulty of
the task.
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◦ Facial expression that accompany
emotions serve as social signals that
communicate physiological needs
and psychological moods.
◦ Facial expression of happiness, anger,
sadness, fear, disgust, surprise  are
recognize as emotional expressions
by many cultures.
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A
D
B
E
C
F
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From infancy to old
age, smiling is a
table indicator
of a happy emotion
in the image
above. Each happy
expression shows
signs of actual joy.
The images above also
show the narrowing of the
eyelids, crows-feet
wrinkling
at the corners of the eyes,
and raising of the outer,
upper area of the cheeks,
indicating actual
happiness.
Images show the
appropriate raising of the
lip corners
(smile), but lack the
degree of narrowing of
the eyelid and crowsfeet wrinkling that unite
with the smile to indicate
an actual happy emotion .
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The crying baby face
shows elements of the
sad expression:
narrowed eyes & raised
cheeks,eyebrows pulled
together, lip corners
pulled down, chin boss
pushed up, but also
includes lateral lip
stretching and has no
raising of the eye bows
in the center of the
forehead
A suffering child shows
a typical sad expresson
with narrowed eyes and
raised cheeks,eyebrows
pulled together & raised
in the center of forehead
forming wrinkles in the
glabella, and a slightly
pushed up chin boss.
The lips may be slightly
pulled laterally &
downwards.
This depiction of sadness
shows the down turned lip
corners and pushed up
chin boss consistent with
a sad expression. Also,
the eyes are narrowed, but
any actions in the brow
area are obscured. Her
posture, gaze direction,
and head orientation help
convey the overall sad
expression.
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Lowered eyebrows, that
are pulled together to
form wrinkles in the skin
of the forehead
(glabella); tensed &
straightened lower
eyelids, & tension in
lips&mouth
characterize the anger
expression. The boy
above has pressed lips
with a slight pushing up
of the chin boss.
The man above shows
the open mouth form of
an anger expression.
His lips are tensed &
thinned. Like the other
anger expressions, his
lower eyelids are tensed
and straightened, the
eyebrows pulled down
and together. The upper
eyelid is raised causing
a glaring look.
The woman above shows
the closed mouth form of
an anger expression, with
lipspressed together, aided
by a pushing up of the chin
boss.Like the other
expressions, her brows are
pulled together, though
slightly, and herlower
eyelids are tensed and
straightened. The upper
eyelids are raised.
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This man is looking down at
rat that is climbing his
chest, so the typical actions
of fear in the eyelids, raised
upper lids and tensed lower
lids, are obscured by his gaze
direction. The eyebrows are
pulled up, but do not show
much of the pulling together
that would indicate a fear
expression in the brow. The
mouth is stretched laterally,
and the neck muscles pulled.
Though containing elements of
a fear expression, this person
is probably not very afraid.
This woman portrays
the elements of a surprise
expression: eyebrows
raised straight up, upper
eyelids raised up, jaw
dropped and mouth open.
However, because of the
extreme drop of the jaw,
the lateral pull on the lip
corners causing the lips
to stretch, and the extreme
opening of the eyes, and
a tensed lower eyelid, a
blend with a fear expression
is created. Blends of a fear
expression and a surprise
expression are common .
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This portrayal captures the essential actions of one
kind of disgust expression: A wrinkled nose with the eyebrows pulled down and
the upper lip drawn up, the lower eyelid is tensed and
the eye opening narrowed.
The pressing of the lips and raising of the upper
eyelids are relevant to an anger expression; whereas
the mouth would be open and the upper eyelids
relaxed in the typical disgust expression. Her turn of
the head to the left is consistent with a disgust
expression, and with avoiding something
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"a perceived incompatibility of actions or
goals" (Myers, 2005, p. 520)
◦ ex: conflict between nations; conflict in
marriage
 While conflict may lead to aggression, it
does not always do so.
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A perceived incompatibility of goals
between two or more parties (Smith &
Mackie, 2000, p. 504).
 Conflicts can be defined as social facts
incorporating at least two parties
(single persons, groups, states, etc.)
that go back to differences in social
living
 Conditions and/or to differences in the
conflict parties‘ interests.
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International (war)
 Societal (sexism)
 Intergroup (relationship between East- and
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West- Germans)
 Interpersonal (interpersonal aggression)
 Intrapersonal (cognitive dissonance)
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Manifest
Latent
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Based on vertical
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Material
Identity related
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Divisible
Undivisible
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Destructive
Constructive
Horizontal stratification
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Social Dilemma
◦ Individual decisions to promote individual wellbeing lead to adverse social outcomes for all
Competition
◦ Game competition increases aggressive
behavior.
Perceived injustice
◦ Perception may be biased, as we overvalue our
own inputs and devalue those of others.
Misperception
◦ of others' motives and goals
◦ exaggerated sense of incompatibility
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Conflict regulation
◦ Pragmatic, avoidance of violence (e.g. peace
corps)
Conflict solution
◦ focussing on the causes of conflicts
Conflict transformation
◦ expanding the spectrum of acceptable
outcomes
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A defence mechanism is an unconscious way to
protect the personality from unpleasant thoughts
which may cause anxiety.
However, a defence mechanism can also lead to a
neurosis if it causes a person to adopt ineffectual
or inappropriate coping strategies.
Types of Defence Mechanism
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Displacement
Introjection
Projection
Rationalisation
Reaction Formation
Regression
Repression
Sublimation
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Displacement.
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Introjection.
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Projection.
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Rationalisation.
◦ Redirecting emotion from a 'dangerous' object to a 'safe'
object. For example punching a cushion when angry at
your partner.
◦ When an individual internalises the values or
characteristics of another person, usually someone who is
significant to the individual in some way.
◦ The opposite of introjection. Attributing one's own
emotions or desires to an external object or person. For
example saying others hate you when it's you who hates
the others.
◦ Inventing a logical reason after an emotional act is made.
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Reaction formation.
◦ A feeling is converted into its opposite, for
example turning hate into love.
Regression.
◦ Behaviour reverts to a previous age.
Repression.
◦ Thoughts unacceptable to the Ego are moved
into the unconscious where they cannot be
easily accessed.
Sublimation.
◦ A 'healthy' form of displacem60ent, for
example playing sport to relieve stress or
anger.
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