Midterm Review
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to
Biology
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1.
2.
MAKE AN OBSERVATION
FORM A HYPOTHESIS
a) A PREDICTION(EDUCATED GUESS?)
3.
TEST THE HYPOTHESIS WITH AN EXPERIMENT
a) EXPERIMENTS SHOULD HAVE ONLY 2 VARIABLE
b) INDEPENDENT VARIABLE –the thing that YOU change
c) DEPENDENT VARIABLE- the thing that changes in response
d) A CONTROL IS SOMETHING HELD CONSISTENT FOR ALL
4.
COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA
a) WE USE MATHEMATICAL-QUANTITATIVE DATA
I.
GRAPHS, TABLES AND MEASURES LIKE AVERAGES, MEDIANS..
5.
FORM A CONCLUSION
a) DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
6.
SHARE YOUR DATA*
a) EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHOULD BE REPLICABLE
3 LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC CERTAINTY
1. A HYPOTHESIS IS THE LOWEST LEVEL
1. A PREDICTION TO EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATION (EDUCATED
GUESS?)
2. A THEORY IS A CONSENSUS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC
COMMUNITY
1. A GENERAL EXPLANATION FOR A BROAD RANGE OF DATA
2. USES DATA FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES FOR SUPPORT
3. EXAMPLE –THE EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS
3. A LAW HAS NO SIGNIFICANT DATA TO OPPOSE IT
1. DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
2. EXAMPLE – E = mc2
THE BRACHES OF BIOLOGY –
BIOLOGY IS THE THE STUDY OF ORGANISMS
FOR EACH BRANCH OF BIOLOGY WE STUDY HOW ORGANISMS..
1. ECOLOGY – INTERRACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
2. CELL BIOLOGY- CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURES
3. GENETICS – HOW TRAITS ARE INHERITED OR HEREDITY
4. BIOCHEMISTRY- CHEMISTRYOF LIFE OR METABOLIC PROCESSES
5. EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY –HOW LIFE EVOLVES
6. MICROBIOLOGY – MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS
7. BOTANY - PLANTS
8. ZOOLOGY – ANIMALS
9. PHYSIOLOGY – HUMAN BODY
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
AN ORGANISM:
IS A LIVING THING CAPABLE OF CARRYING ON ALL THE PROCESS OF LIFE
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING TRAITS…
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
2. HOMEOSTASIS
3. HEREDITY
4. RESPONSIVENESS
5. REPRODUCTION
6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
7. METABOLISM
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
a) ORGANISMS ARE EITHER UNICELLULAR OF
MULTICELLULAR
I. UNICELLULAR -1 CELLED
II. MULTICELLULAR – MORE THAN 1 CELL
b) THEY ARE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTIC
PROKARYOTIC –LACK A NUCLEUS OR
ORGANELLES
II. EUKARYOTIC – HAVE NULCEUS AND
ORGANELLES
I.
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1.HOMEOSTASIS
1. THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN A STABLE
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
2. EXAMPLE –THERMOREGULATION, BLOOD
PRESSURE, BLOOD GLUCOSE
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. HEREDITY
1. ORGANISMS PASS THEIR TRAITS TO THEIR
OFFSPRING
1. THEY USE THE MOLECULE DNA ORGANIZED IN
CHROMOSOMES
2. THESE INHERITED TRAITS CHANGE OVER
TIME – EVOLVE
1. SPECIES TRAITS ARE ENCODED IN DNA WHICH
CHANGES
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. RESPONSIVENESS
1. ORGANISMS RESPOND TO THE
ENVIRONMENT
1. INDIVIDUALS RESPOND WITH BEHAVIORS
2. SPECIES RESPOND BY EVOLVING
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. REPRODUCTION
a.
b.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1)
THE EXCHANGE AND COMBINATION OF DNA
2)
SEX CELLS (GAMETES)COMBINE TO FORM NEW INDIVIDUALS
3)
HIGH LEVEL OF VARIATIONS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1)
THE REPLICATION OF PARENTS TO FORM DAUGHTER CELL
2)
OFFSPRING IDENTICAL TO PARENTS
3)
EXAMPLE –BINARY FISSION
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
a) ORGANISM GROW BY MITOSIS
b) ORGANISMS DEVELOP THROUGH CELLULAR
DIFFERENTIATION
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. METABOLISM
1. THE SUM OF ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2. IN LIVING SYSTEMS THE CARBON CYCLE IS THE
FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS
a)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
I.
CO2 + H2O --- C6H12O6 + O2
b) CELL RESPIRATION
I.
C6H12O6 + O2 --- CO2 + H2O
Midterm Review
CHAPTER 18 CLASSIFICATION
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1. TAXONOMY -THE SCIENCE OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS
a) CARL LINNAEUS-THE FATHER OF MODERN TAXONOMY
b) BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE –SCIENTIFIC NAME
I.
A 2 NAME SYSTEM
II. Genus species or Genus species
III. SCIENTIFIC NAMES ARE GIVEN IN LATIN
c) CLADISTICS IS THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS ON THE BASIS
OF SHARED TRAITS
I.
WE CAN USE A CLADOGRAM TO LINK RELATED ORGANISMS
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.TAXONOMY -THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM
a) ORGANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED BY
CHARACTERISTICS
I.
ARCHAEBACTERIA- ANCIENT BACTERIAEXTREMOPHILES
II. BACTERIA- STREPTOCOCCUS,
STAPHYLOCOCCOUS
III. EUKARYA- PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE,
ANIMALIA
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.7 LEVELS OF THE MODERN TAXONOMY
a) DOMAIN
b) KINGDOM
c) PHYLUM
d) CLASS
e) ORDER
f) FAMILY
g) GENUS
h) SPECIES
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.THE HUMAN CLASSIFICATION
a) DOMAIN – EUKARYA
b) KINGDOM - ANIMALIA
c) PHYLUM - CHORDATA
d) CLASS - MAMMALIA
e) ORDER - PRIMATE
f) FAMILY - HOMINIDAE
g) GENUS - HOMO
h) SPECIES - SAPIENS
Midterm Review
CHAPTER 3 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. MATTER-IS COMPOSED OF ATOMS
a) ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF SUBATOMIC
PARTICLES
I.
PROTON
a)
b)
c)
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
POSITVE CHARGE +1
MASS IS 1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
II. NEUTRON
a)
b)
c)
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
NEUTRAL CHARGE
MASS IS 1.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
III. ELECTRON
a)
b)
c)
FOUND IN THE ORBITAL ENERGY SHELLS
NEGATIVE CHARGE -1
MASS IS 0.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. AN ELEMENT IS A TYPE OF ATOM
a) AN ELEMENT IS SUBSTANCE MADE UP OF THE
SAME TYPE OF ATOMS
I.
ELEMENTS OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE HAVE THE
SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS GIVEN BY THE
ATOMIC NUMBER
a)
b)
c)
CARBON 6
OXYGEN 8
HYDROGEN 1
II. SOME ATOMES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE MAY
HAVE DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRON
a)
b)
c)
CARBON12 -6 PROTONS 6 NEUTRON
CARBON14 -6 PROTONS 8 NEUTRON
THEY ARE CALLED ISOTOPES OF CARBON
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. THE PERIODIC TABLE ORGANIZES ALL ATOMS
ITS CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING FOR EACH ELEMENT
a) CHEMICAL SYMBOL
I.
AN ABBREVIATION OF AN ATOMS NAME
a)
b)
C-CARBON, H-HYDROGEN
SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
b) ATOMIC NUMBER
I.
AN ATOMS PROTON NUMBER
a)
b)
CARBON HAS 6 PROTONS –ATOMIC NUMBER 6
HYDROGEN HAS 1 PROTON – ATOMIC NUMBER 1
c) ATOMIC MASS
I.
THE COMBINATION OF THE MASS OF PROTONS AND
NEUTRONS
a)
b)
CARBON – 6 PROTONS + 6 NEUTRON = ATOMIC MASS 12
SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. CHEMICAL BONDS – ATOMS COMBINE
THERE ARE 3 IMPORTANT BONDS
a) COVALENT BOND
I.
BASED ON THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS
a)
b)
c)
FORM MOLECULES
DRIVEN BY THE OCTET RULE- WHICH STATES “MOST ATOMS REQUIRE 8
ELECTRONS IN THE OUTERMOST ORBITAL SHELL-(VALENCE SHELL)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE CO2 , C6H12O6, O2
b) IONIC BONDS
I.
BASED ON THE DONATION OR ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRONS
a)
b)
c)
d)
FORM IONIC COMPOUNDS
ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c) HYDROGEN BONDS
I.
BASED ON ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN H+ ATOMS AND OXYGEN
a)
IMPORTANT IN WATER, DNA , & PROTEIN STRUCTURE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER - LIFE IS DEPENDENT UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
a) WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULE
I.
IT IS A MOLECULE WITH IONIC CHARACTER
a)
b)
c)
OXYGEN IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (-) CHARGE
HYDROGENS IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (+) CHARGE
ADJACENT MOLECULES ARE ATTRACTED TO ONE ANOTHER
b) LIQUID WATER IS LESS DENSE THAN SOLID WATER
I.
ICE FLOATS
a)
b)
c)
d)
FLOATING ICE PREVENTS LAKES AND OCEANS FROM FREEZING COMPLETELY
AND ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO LIVE IN COLD CONDITIONS
ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c) WATER IS STICKY
I.
IT IS BOTH ADHESIVE AND COHESIVE
a)
b)
COHESION WATER STICKS TO ITS SELF
ADHESIONWATER STICKS TO OTHER POLAR MOLECULES
d) WATER IS THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
I.
IT DISSOLVES POLAR MOLECULES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
a) A SOLUTION CONTAINS BOTH A SOLVENT
AND SOLUTE
I.
A SOLUTE IS THE SOLID DISSOLVED IN
SOLUTION
II. THE SOLVENT IS THE LIQUID COMPONENT OF A
SOLUTION
a)
b)
c)
POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE POLAR COMPOUNDS
a) EXAMPLE WATER AND SUGAR
NON-POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE NON-POLAR
COMPOUNDS
a) EXAMPLE GASOLINE AND OIL
SOLUTIONS WHERE WATER IS THE SOLVENT ARE
CALLED AQUAEOUS
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
a) ACIDS AND BASES ARE AQUAEOUS SOLUTIONS
b) THE pH scale measures H+ ion concentration
I.
ACIDS –LOW pH
a)
b)
H+ DONORS
EXAMPLES INCLUDE LEMON JUICE, HCl
II. BASES - HIGH pH
a)
b)
H+ ACCEPTORS
EXAMPLES INCLUDE, NaOH, OVEN CLEANER, LYE,
AMMONIA
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
BUFFERS – IONIC COMPOUNDS IN LIVING
SYSTEMS
a) NEUTRALIZE ACIDS AND BASES
b) AN IMPORTANT EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTASIS
c) THEY CAN ACT AS H+ DONORS OR ACCEPTORS
d) YOU HAVE BUFFERS IN YOUR BLOOD THAT
ALLOW YOU TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT pH
e) ANTACIDS ARE EXAMPLES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
BIOCHEMISTRY- THERE ARE 4 MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE
MOLECULES
a) CARBOHYDRATES (SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES)
I.
II.
OFTEN POLYMERS OF GLUCOSE
THE MAJOR AND 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS
b) LIPIDS (FATS)
I.
II.
ARE THE MOST DENSE ENERGY STORAGE MOLECULES
FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES
c) PROTEINS
I.
II.
POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS
ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN
d) NUCLEIC ACIDS
I.
II.
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS AS DNA OR RNA
POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
CARBOHYDRATES
I.
COMMONLY CALLED SUGARS OR
SACCHARIDES (-OSEs)
II. CAN BE FOUND AS MONO, DI, OR
POLYSACCHARIDES
a)
b)
c)
MONOSACCHARIDE- GLUCOSE
DISACCHARIDE- SUCROSE, LACTOSE
POLYSACCHARIDE- STARCH, CELLULOSE,
GLYCOGEN
III. THE 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING
THINGS
IV. FORM STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN
ORGANISM LIKE THE CELL WALL
a)
b)
WOOD IS CELLULOSE
A BUGS SHELL IS MADE OF CHITIN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
LIPIDS
I. POLYMERS OF FATTY ACIDS
II. ARE USED FOR LONG TERM ENERGY
STORAGE
a)
EXAMPLES CHOLESTEROL
III. FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES
a)
b)
PHOSPHOLIPID
PREVENTS THE MOVEMENT OF H2O IN OR OUT OF
THE CELL
IV. ACT AS HORMONES
a)
TESTOSTERONE & ESTROGEN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
PROTEINS
a) POLYMERS OF AMINO
ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE
BONDS
b) ALL ENZYMES ARE
PROTEIN
c) PROTEINS HAVE
IMPORTANT ROLES AS
I.
ENZYMES (-ASEs)
I.
II.
EXAMPLE AMYLASE,
HYDROLASE, ATPase
HORMONES- like INSULIN,
SEROTONIN
III. STRUCTUAL ELEMENTSKERATIN, COLLAGEN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
NUCLEIC ACIDS
I.
CARRY HEREDITARY
INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF
GENES
II. FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
a)
FORMS AN ALPHA DOUBLE HELIX
III. POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
a)
b)
c)
CONTAIN A SUGAR –RIBOSE OR
DEOXYRIBOSE
NITROGENOUS BASE
PHOSPHATE GROUP
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
MATTER AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
1.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE SYMBOLIZED IN EQUATIONS
REACTANTS------PRODUCTS
A + B -------------- C + D
2.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS STORE AND RELEASE ENERGY
a)
b)
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS–NEED ENERGY TO PROCEED
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS – GIVE OFF ENERGY AS THEY PROCEED
3.
ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL
REACTION TO PROCEED
4.
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER
ACTIVATION ENERGY
a)
b)
THIS SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS
THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION
ENERGY
a) THIS SPEEDS CHEMICAL REACTIONS
b) THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR
LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL
CATALYSTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS WITH A
SPECIFIC 3DIMENSIONAL
STRUCTURE
ENZYMES LOWER ACTIV ATION
ENRGY BY BINDING SUBSTRATES
AT THEIR ACTIVE SITES
ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS
WITHOUT BEING CHANGED OR
USED UP
ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE
INFLUENCED BY THE
ENVRONMENT
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
1.
ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE
INFLUENCED BY THE
ENVIRONMENT
a) CHANGES IN pH
b) CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE
c) CHANGES IN ENZYME OR
SUBSTRATE
CONCENTRATION
Midterm Review
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS
1. (1665) ROBERT HOOK: “CELLS”
2. (1695) ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK:
“ANIMACULES”
3. SCHLIEDEN: PLANTS ARE MADE OF CELLS
4. SCHWANN: ANIMALS ARE MADE OF CELLS
5. VIRCHOW: ALL CELLS COME FROM
PREXISTING CELLS
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE CELL THEORY
1.
2.
3.
ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE OF ONE OR MORE CELLS”
CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS
CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES
1.
THIS IS A COMPOUND LIGHT
MICROSCOPE
1.
COMPOUND DUE TO MULTIPLE
LENSES
2.
LIGHT MUST PASS THROUGH
THE OBJECT BEING OBSERVED
3.
THE EYEPIECE OR OCULAR
LENS IS ON TOP
4.
THE OBJECTIVE LENSES ARE
DOWN NEAR THE OBJECT
CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES
1.
MAGNIFICATION
a)
2.
IS THE ABILITY OF A MICROSCOPE TO
MAGNIFY OR ENLARGE AN OBJECT
RESOLUTION
a)
IS A MEASURE OF HOW CLEARLY
DETAILS CAN BE SEEN
OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
1.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
a)
2.
GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH
MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTION
SCANNING TUNNELING
MICROSCOPE
a)
GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH
MAGNIFICATION AND 3D IMAGES
CELL SIZE AND SHAPE
WHAT DETERMINES A CELLS SIZE
1. A HIGH SURFACE TO VOLUME
RATIO
1. THE GREATER THE SURFACE
AREA, MORE STUFF GETS IN
Spinal Neuron-Over 3 feet long
AND OUT OF CELL
1. GREATER THE VOLUME, LESS
STUFF GETS IN OR OUT; CELL
2.
STARVES OR IS POISONED
CELL SIZE VARIES WITH
FUNCTION
Sperm Cell- 25 Micrometers
CELL STRUCTURE
3 Major Parts of Cell
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE:
a) CONTROLS PASSAGE OF
MATERIALS IN OR OUT OF
CELL
2. NUCLEAR REGION:
a) CONTROLS CELLS
ACTIVITIES;
b) CONTAINS DNA & RNA
3. CYTOPLASM :
a) ORGANELLES AND CYTOSOL
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION & TYPES OF
CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITHOUT A
NUCLEUS OR OTHER ORGANELLES
EUKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITH A NUCLEUS
AND OUTER CELL MEMBRANE WHICH ALLOWS
MOLECULES TO PASS IN AND OUT
EUKARYOTIC CELLS CONTAIN “LITTLE ORGANS”
CALLED ORGANELLES
EACH ORGANELLE PERFORMS SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
Cells are organized into tissues
Nerve Tissue is composed of astrocytes and neurons
Tissues are organized into organs
The heart is made of muscle and connective tissue
Organs are organized into organ Systems
The respiratory system includes the lungs, trachea, nasal
passages, diaphragm muscle and blood vessels
Organs Systems are organized into an Organism
We are composed of our body systems including;
Cardiovascular, rproductive, digestive, nervous…etc.
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
1. CYTOPLASM
a) ALL THE AREA BETWEEN THE CELL MEMBRANE AND
THE NUCLEUS AND CONTAINS ALL OF THE
ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CELL
2. RIBOSOMES
a) MAKE PROTEINS FROM AA; FOUND ON ER OR IN
CYTOSOL
b) MADE IN THE NUCLEOLUS OF RRNA
3. ROUGH ER
a) MAKES PROTEINS AND TRANSPORTS THEM TO OTHER
PARTS OF THE CELL VIA VESICLES (LITTLE PACKAGES)
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
4. SMOOTH ER
a) TRANSPORTS PROTEINS
b) SYNTHESIZES LIPIDS
5. GOLGI APPARATUS
a) FOUND CLOSE TO ER.
b) TAKES PROTEIN FROM ER AND MODIFIES
THEM TO MAKE THEM WORK;
c) SENDS THEM ON THEIR WAY (MAILROOM OF
THE CELL)
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
6. MITOCHONDRION
a) POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. TAKES IN FOOD; CONVERTS
IT TO ATP, WHICH IS BROKEN DOWN FOR ENERGY.
b) SOME CELLS HAVE MORE MITOCHONDRIA THAN OTHERS
CRISTAE: FOLDS IN THE INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHONDRIA TO
INCREASE SURFACE AREA
7. NUCLEUS
a) CONTROLS AND COORDINATES CELL’S ACTIVITIES.
CONTAINS CHROMATIN (DNA). DNA CONVERTED TO
RNA AND STORED IN NUCLEOLUS. RNA SENT OUT TO
b)
c)
CELL AS A MESSENGER
SURROUNDED BY NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
NUCLEAR PORES ALLOW RNA TO LEAVE NUCLEUS
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
8. CYTOSKELETON: SCAFFOLDING THAT GIVES CELL SHAPE
a) MICROFILAMENTS: USED FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
b) MICROTUBULES: THICKER, MOVE ORGANELLES
c) CILIA AND FLAGELLA
I. HELP SOME CELLS MOVE AROUND
≈ II. LINING OF RESPIRATORY TRACT
9. LYSOSOMES:
a) CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
b) BREAKS DOWN GLUCOSE
c) CAN RUPTURE AND KILL CELL
Midterm Review
CHAPTER 8 CELLULAR TRANSPORT
Structure of Plasma Membrane
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE:
ALLOWS SOME MOLECULES
IN; KEEPS OTHERS OUT
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER:
POLAR HEADS ON OUTSIDE
AND INSIDE OF CELL;
NONPOLAR TAILS ON INSIDE
OF MEMBRANE
POLAR: HYDROPHILIC:
WATER LOVING
NONPOLAR:HYDROPHOBIC:
WATER HATING
Molecules on the Plasma Membrane
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
GLYCOPROTEINS: ACT AS RECEPTORS; MOLECULES ATTACH TO
CELL; TELL IT WHAT TO DO
CHOLESTEROL  GIVES MEMBRANE SHAPE; RIGIDITY
RECEPTOR PROTEINS  BIND HORMONES & OTHER SUBSTANCES
COMING IN FROM OUTSIDE THE CELL
RECOGNITION PROTEINS  PROTEINS ON MEMBRANE THAT ARE
USED FOR RECOGNITION BY EXTRA-CELLULAR SUBSTANCES
ADHESION PROTEINS  HELP CELLS OF A CERTAIN TYPE STICK
TOGETHER TO FORM TISSUES
Protein Receptors
coming out of plasma
membrane
What gets in and out of the cell membrane?
How do some substances pass through the membrane
while others stay out?
Materials moves across the membrane in two ways
1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION: MOVEMENT
OF MOLECULES FROM
HIGH TO LOW
CONCENTRATION
OXYGEN, CO2, FAT
SOLUBLE MOLECULES,
AND WATER PASS
THROUGH THE
MEMBRANE BY SIMPLE
DIFFUSION
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
CARRIER FACILITATED DIFFUSION:
DIFFUSION OF LARGE MOLECULES VIA
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
AQUAPORES: ALLOW WATER TO DIFFUSE
IONIC PORES: ALLOW IONS LIKE Na+ or Cl- to diffuse
CHANNEL PROTEINS: ALLOW SPECIFIC LARGE
MOLECULES TO DIFFUSE LIKE GLUCOSE
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: USING ENERGY TO TRANSPORT LARGE
MOLECULES INTO THE CELL AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION
GRADIENTS
1. CELL MEMBRANE PUMPS  CARRIER PROTEINS PUMP IONS
AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
2. ENDOCYTOSIS: ENGULFING OF LARGE PARTICLES OR LIQUIDS BY
PLASMA MEMBRANE
PINOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF LIQUID
PHAGOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF SOLID
CELLS TAKE IN CHOLESTEROL BY ENDOCYTOSIS FROM BLOODSTREAM
3. EXOCYTOSIS:VESICLE CONTENTS EXPELLED BY CELL
PROTEINS ARE TRANSPORTED BY EXOCYTOSIS
Exocytosis Animation
Endocytosis Animation
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS: DIFFUSION OF WATER
ISOTONIC SOLUTION: CELLS ARE AT
EQUILIBRIUM; NO NET MOVEMENT OF
WATER
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A
SOLUTION THAT HAS LOTS OF SALTS OR
OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES OUT OF
THE CELL AND THE CELL SHRINKS
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A SOLUTION
THAT HAS LITTLE OR NO SALTS OR OTHER
IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES INTO THE CELL
AND THE CELL SWELLS
Tonicity in Red Blood Cells
MIDTERM REVIEW
CHAPTER 9 CELLULAR RESPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATION
THE BASIC EQUATIONS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 +
O2
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + O2 ======> CO2 + H20
+ ATP
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS*
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 +
O2
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
HAS BOTH LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS
The LIGHT Reactions
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 +
O2
OCCURS IN THE THYLAKOIDS OF CHLOROPLAST
LIGHT REACTIONS- Use light to split H20, make O2, and a Hydrogen
Ion gradient which makes ATP and NADPH
Also known as the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
The DARK Reactions
+ ATP + NADPH C H O + O
CO2 + H20 ======>
6 12 6
2
OCCURS IN THE STROMA OF CHLOROPLAST
The Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle:
Use CO2 , (+ ATP + NADPH) to make C6H12O6 !!!
Also known as the LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS AND
OR CALVIN CYCLE!!
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
OVERVIEW
C6H12O6 + O2 ======>
CO2 + H20 + ATP
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Has a few Reactions
Glycolysis
The Krebs/TCA/Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport Chain
OR Fermentation (if there’s no O2 available)
And 2 Major Pathways
Aerobic Reactions – use O2
Anaerobic Reactions – Doesn't use O2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
Glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS
C6H12O6 + O2  2ATP + H2O + 2Pyruvate
OCCURS IN THE CYTOPLASM!!! NOT MITOCHONDRIA
ANAEROBIC REACTION -Doesn’t Use O2
In Short: Step 1
Glycolysis (glucose-lysis)
C6H12O62Pyruvate + H2O +2ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
THE KREBS CYCLE (*aka. TCA/Citric Acid Cycle)
2 Pyruvate + O2
 2ATP + CO2 +2NADH + 2FADH2
OCCURS IN THE MATRIX of MITOCHONDRIA
AEROBIC REACTION –USES O2
In Short: Step 2 The Krebs/TCA Cycle
2 Pyruvate CO2 + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2FADH2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH+ 2FADH2  H20 + 32-34 ATP
OCCURS ON THE CRISTAE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
Uses a Hydrogen Ion gradient to make ATP!
In Short: Step 3
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH + 2FADH2  H20 + 32-34ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
If there’s no O2 Organisms use Glycolysis then Fermentation!!
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- AKA- FERMENTATION
2 TYPES
In Animals
2 Pyruvate 
+ 2ATP + Lactic Acid
In Yeast
2 Pyruvate 
+ 2ATP +
Ethanol
In Short: Under Anaerobic Conditons
Step 1: Glycolysis
Step 2: Fermentation
MIDTERM REVIEW
CHAPTER 10-11 CELL DIVISION
WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?
THEY HAVE GROWN TOO LARGE SO….
THE SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO IS TOO
SMALL
TO ALLOW AN ORGANISM TO GROW AND
INCREASE ITS SIZE
CELLS HAVE DIED AND NEED TO BE
REPLACED
DNA IN THE CELL
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS DNA CONDENSES TO FORM
CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE FROM PROTEINS CALLED
HISTONES AND DNA TOGETHER KNOWN AS CHROMATIN
CHROMATIN ALLOWS DNA TO COIL INTO NUCLEOSOMES
EACH CHROMOSOME CONSISTS OF IDENTICAL HALVES
CALLED SISTER CHROMATIDS
SISTER CHROMATIDS ARE JOINED TOGETHER AT THE
CENTROMERE
NUMBER & TYPES OF
CHROMOSOMES
SEX CHROMOSOMES DETERMINE THE
GENDER OF AN ORGANISM
XX = FEMALE XY = MALE
DIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 COPIES OF
EACH CHROMOSOME
THE NORMAL BODY CELLS ARE CALLED
SOMATIC CELLS, AND THEY ARE ALL
DIPLOID
DIPLOID & HAPLOID CELLS
DIPLOID CELLLS: 2n SOMATIC CELLS
HAPLOID CELLS: 1n GAMETES
CELL DIVISION IN
PROKARYOTES
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS:
a) UNICELLULAR BACTERIA WITH NO NUCLEUS
OR MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
b) THEIR DNA IS FOUND AS ONE CIRCULAR
CHROMOSOME
c) THEIR CELLS REPRODUCE THROUGH BINARY
FISSION DNA IS REPLICATED, CELL DOUBLES
IN SIZE AND SPLITS
STAGES OF MITOSIS
1.
PROPHASE
a)
b)
c)
2.
METAPHASE
a)
3.
b)
CENTROMERES ARE PULLED APART BY SPINDLE FIBERS AND
SISTER CHROMATIDS SPLIT
CHROMATIDS MOVE TOWARD OPPOSITE POLES
TELOPHASE
a)
b)
c)
5.
SPINDLES ALIGN CHROMOSOMES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL
AKA METAPHASE PLATE
ANAPHASE
a)
4.
CHROMATIN CONDENSES & NUCLEUS DISAPPEARS
SPINDLE FIBERS (MICROTUBULES) FORM & MOVE
CHROMOSOMES
CENTROSOMES BEGIN TO MIGRATE
CHROMOSOMES ARRIVE AT OPPOSITE ENDS OF CELL
NUCLEUS REAPPEARS
SPINDLE DISAPPEARS
CYTOKINESIS
a)
CELL SPLITS TO FORM 2 NEW DAUGHTER CELLS
STAGES OF MITOSIS
CYTOKINESIS - PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS
IN ANIMAL CELLS: A CLEAVAGE FURROW
PINCHES ONE CELL INTO 2 CELLS
MEIOSIS
GETTING FROM DIPLOID TO HAPLOID
CELLS: MEIOSIS
WHERE DOES IT OCCUR IN HUMANS?
MALES: TESTES
FEMALES: OVARIES
MEIOSIS OVERVIEW
MEIOSIS I
1 DIPLOID * CELL SPLITS INTO 2 HAPLOID
CELLS
MEIOSIS II
2HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS UNDERGO
MITOSIS
FFORMS 4 HAPLOID SEX CELLS
SSAME AS MITOSIS
MEIOSIS I
PROPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES PAIR TOGETHER A PROCESS CALLED SYNAPSIS
EACH HOMOLOGOUS PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED A TETRAD
PORTIONS OF CHROMATIDS BREAK OFF AND ATTACH TO ADJACENT HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMATIDS THIS PROCESS IS KNOWN AS CROSSING OVER
CROSSING OVER CREATES NEW GENE COMBINATIONS – THE CHROMOSOMES OF YOUR
SEX CELLS ARE COMBINATIONS OF BOTH YOUR MOM AND DADS!!!
METAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL
ANAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES MOVE TO OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
RANDOM SEPARATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT
TELOPHASE I
CHROMOSOMES REACH OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
CYTOKINESIS BEGINS
MEIOSIS II
2 HAPLOID CELLS GO THROUGH THE PROCESS
OF MITOSIS & CELL DIVISION
THE RESULT OF MEIOSIS II IS 4 HAPLOID CELLS
GAMETE FORMATION
IN MALES MEIOSIS CREATES 4 SPERM CELLS
(CALLED SPERMATIDS)
IN FEMALES THE CYTOPLASM IS UNEVENLY
DIVIDED SO THAT ONLY 1 BIG CELL THE OVUM IS
FORMED, ALONG WITH 3 OTHER CELLS KNOWN AS
POLAR BODIES
MEIOSIS VOCABULARY
DIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 OF EACH
TYPE OF CHROMOSOME
(1 FROM MOM AND 1 FROM DAD)
N= NUMBER OF PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES
DIPLOID CELLS: 2N
ZYGOTE: FERTILIZED EGG
GAMETES: HAPLOID SEX CELLS
FERTILIZATION: UNION OF EGG AND SPERM
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: PARENTS
GENERATE SPECIALIZED SEX CELLS