Chapter 5
Building Blocks of
Scientific Research
References:
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Business Research (Duane Davis)
Business Research Methods (Cooper/Schindler)
Resource Person: Furqan-ul-haq Siddiqui
of Scientific Research
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Critical concepts (terminologies) which must be understood
to enter in the world of research. These are the building
blocks upon which building of research is laid down.
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Axiom
 Deduction
Observation  Induction
Facts
 Hypothesis
Construct
 Variable
Concept
Operational Definition
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Axiom
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A self-evident and necessary truth, or a proposition
whose truth is so evident as first sight that no reasoning
or demonstration can make it plainer; a proposition
which it is necessary to take for granted.
As classically conceived, an axiom is a premise so
evident as to be accepted as true without controversy.
a universally established principle or law that is not a ne
cessary truth.
Proof of axiom may not be possible by research.
Observation
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Observations are our perception of reality & experimental in
nature. Observation is the activity of a living being (such as
a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside
world through the senses, or the recording of data using
scientific instruments.
Facts
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The word fact can refer to verified information about past
or present circumstances or events which are presented as
objective reality. In science, it means a provable concept.
Construct
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A construct is an image or idea which is under consideration
for research purpose. Constructs are built by combining
more concrete concepts, especially when the idea or image
we invented to convey is not subject to direct observation.
The construct is a proposed attribute of a person that often
cannot be measured directly, but can be assessed using a
number of indicators or manifest variables. Broad concepts or
topics of study
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Eg. When a researcher aims to research on terms e.g.
morale, satisfaction, learning, motivation etc.
Operational
Definition
Conceptual Definition
(Theoretical or
Academic definition)
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A concept is generally
accepted collection of
meanings or characteristics
associated with certain objects,
conditions, situations and
behavior.
It answers the question “What
does it mean?”
The concept may change from
discipline to discipline, place
to place, things to things, idea
to idea.
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An operational definition is
simply how a researcher
decides to measure (and thus
define) a construct.
It answers the question “How to
measure it?”
concrete representation of a
construct; a way of counting &
measuring something by a
researcher as per his
convenience.
Variable
When we operationalize a concept, we are creating
VARIABLES!
 Definition: Any characteristic that varies (meaning
it must have at least two values)
 Any event, situation, behavior, or individual
characteristic that varies.
 Research questions and hypotheses consist of x and
y variables:
 Is X related to Y?
 Is studying related to school performance?
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Independent vs. Dependent Variables
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Independent variable (IV)– the “x” variable
Considered the “cause” of a behavior (the DV)
Variable that is manipulated in experimental design
The predictor variable in an observational/correlational
study
Dependent variable (DV)– the “y” variable
The variable that is the “effect”
The “outcome” or “response” variable
The outcome variable in an observational/correlational
study
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement that is empirically testable.
It is an empirical statement concerned with the
relationship among variables.
 Hypothesis may have;
a. Specific Acceptance- We took 60 years data of
Pakistan and proved that as inflation increases,
unemployment decreases.
b. Generalizes Acceptance- If the hypothesis is accepted
in many cases than it becomes a theory.
c. Universal Acceptance- If accepted every where than
it becomes reality or Law (Law of Nature).
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Ways of Communication/Reasoning
Ways of conveying meaning
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Argument: Argument allow us to explain,
interpret, defend, challenge or explore meaning.
Specially used when a statement gives different
meaning to different people, in order to
support/prove our statement we take help of
arguments.
In Research two types of arguments are used
Deduction (deductive reasoning)
Induction (Inductive reasoning)
Deduction
The logical process of reasoning by which a
specific conclusion is derived from something which
is known to be true or from a known premises
(Premises are previous statements from which
another is derived).
 The conclusion must fallow a reason, and the reason
must be from real world, or agreed by real world
(true & Valid).
 Deductive techniques of formal logic always leads
from the general to the particular and never vice
versa.
Deduction
We believe that every word of Holly Quran is 100% true.
In the Quran it is written that the world was created in 7
days.
Therefore the statement that the world was created in
7 days is true.
All managers need information to make decisions.
 Mr. Ali is a decision maker
 Mr. Ali needs information to make decisions
 All high performers managers are highly proficient.
Khalid is a high performer
Khalid is a high proficient
At IMS cheating in exams is strictly not allowed.
I am a student of IMS
 I don't cheat in exams
 If T is larger than C, and If C is larger than W, then T is
larger than W.
Induction
We draw a conclusion from one or more particular
facts or pieces of evidences. Induction is the
process of reasoning from the particular to the
general as opposed to the inverse process of
deduction.
 The basis of induction is the assumption that if
something is true in a number of observed instances,
it is also true in similar, but unobserved, instances.
 Induction is ‘the inference of a general law from
particular instances’ & Deduction is ‘the inferring of
particular instances from a general law
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Suppose a stock broker with 15 In
years of experience concludes
that the prices of shares decrease
when there is terrorism &
political instability in country.
Therefore he induces that stock
prices are related with political
stability.
Truth
A firm spends One Million Rupees on promotion campaign but sales
don’t increase, Why?
One answer may be a conclusion that campaign was poorly executed.
This is a induction because we know from experience that sales go up
by promotion & if promotion is poor sales don’t increase.
The tentative explanation why sales not increase is hypothesis (which may prove
right or wrong after research)
Combining Deduction & Induction
Induction occurs when we observe a fact & ask,
“Why is this?” In answer to this Question, we give
a tentative explanation called “ hypothesis”. The
hypothesis is reasonable if it explains the event or
condition (fact). Deduction is the process by which
we test weather the hypothesis is capable of
explaining the fact or not.
 Thus Theory construction is often the result of
Deduction & Induction. Our Experiences lead us to
draw conclusions that then we try to verify by using
scientific method.
We promote a
Product But sales
do not increase
Why didn’t Sale Increase
Why?
Deduction:
Ineffective
promotion will
not increase sale
If we run an effective
Promotion then sale
increases
Hypothesis:
The promotion campaign
Was poorly executed.