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• Attention: Focusing awareness
• Selective Attention: selection of input
– Filtering: screens out most potential stimuli while
allowing selected info to pass through into conscious
awareness
– Cocktail Party Phenomenon: suggests that filters occur
later
– Stroop Effect: automatic processes can interfere w/
other tasks Green/Red
– Next in Line Effect: when taking turns speaking you
forget what is said right before your turn.
– Serial Position Effect- When you remember info at the
beginning & end but nothing in between
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• Incoming info processed at different levels
Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes
• Encoding levels:
1) Structural = shallow (physical structure)
2) Phonemic = intermediate (sounds like)
3) Semantic = deep (meaning)
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• Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other info at the
time of encoding
– Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to
represent words to be remembered
• Dual-coding theory = semantic + visual codes (2
>1)
– Easier to visualize concrete objects
• Self-Referent Encoding = making info personally
meaningful
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• Information-processing theories
– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
– Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage =
incoming info passes through 2 temporary storage
buffers 1) Sensory 2) Short Term then 3) Long Term
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• Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form approximately ¼ second
• George Sperling (1960): Classic experiment
on visual sensory store
– Echoic Memory: Auditory
– Iconic Memory: Visual
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• Limited capacity – magical number 7 +/- 2
(George Miller)
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage
as a single unit
• Limited duration – about 20 seconds
without rehearsal
– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the information
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• Working Memory – (Baddeley) allows temporary
storage & manipulation of the info necessary for complex
cognitive tasks (language comprehension, learning, reasoning) It
require the simultaneous storage& processing of info.
– Executive control system: attentional-controlling system
– Phonological rehearsal loop: stores & rehearses
speech-based info & is necessary for the acquisition of
both native & second-language vocabulary.
– Visuospatial sketchpad: manipulates visual images
– Episodic Buffer: integrates info before LTM
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• Long Term Memory: unlimited store holds
memory over long periods of time,
relatively permanent
• Flashbulb memories: vivid detailed
memory of moments or events
– Recall through hypnosis
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• Clustering: remember similar items in group
• Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel
classification system based on commonalities
to remember
• Schemas: organized cluster of knowledge
based on previous experiences
• Semantic Networks: nodes (concepts) linked
to related concepts
• Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
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Clustering
Semantic Networks
Conceptual Hierarchy
Connectionist/PDP
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Schemas
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Schemas
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• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: a failure in
retrieval of something you know
• Recalling an event
– Retrieval cues: Hints
– Context cues: remember when in the location
• Reconstructing memories
– Misinformation effect: Elizabeth Loftus
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• Reconstructing memories
– Source monitoring: make attributions about where
memories come from (Marcia Johnson)
– Source monitoring error: mistake in the source
– Reality Monitoring: deciding whether memories are
based on external (actual events) or internal
(thoughts or imagination)
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• Retention – the proportion of material retained
– Recall: remember without cues
– Recognition: remember with cues
– Relearning: memorize again to measure how
much time/practice before learning occurs
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve: retention
reduces after learning something compared
to retention after learning something
meaningful
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• Ineffective Encoding:
– Pseudo forgetting you can’t forget something you never learned
• Decay theory: memories fade with time (storage)
• Primacy effect: higher likelihood of remembering earlier
info. (due to rehearsal)
• Recency effect: higher likelihood of remembering last info.
(b/c STM)
• Interference theory: forget b/c of competition from other
materials
– Proactive: can’t remember new info b/c of old info
– Retroactive: can’t remember old info b/c of new info
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• Encoding Specificity: memories are linked to the
context where they are created (learning a word
by the way it sounds then sound would be the
retrieval cue to help remember)
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing: memory will
be best when the processes engaged in during
encoding match those engaged in during
retrieval
• Repression: motivated forgetting
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• Biochemistry
– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis
• Neural circuitry
– Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain
• Long-term potentiation: when forming memories
synapses strengthen pathways the more you
remember
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• Anatomy
– Anterograde: cannot remember anything since
the accident
– Retrograde Amnesia: cannot remember anything
before the accident
– Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP):
hippocampus bind individual elements of specific
memories.
• Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,
• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
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• Implicit vs. Explicit
– Implicit: unintentional
-Explicit: intentional
• Declarative vs. Procedural
– Declarative: Facts
-Procedural: Actions
• Semantic vs. Episodic
– Semantic: general info –Episodic: Dated info
• Prospective vs. Retrospective
– Prospective: future actions
– Retrospective: previously learned info
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• Engage in adequate rehearsal
• Distribute practice and minimize
interference
• Emphasize deep processing and
transfer-appropriate processing
• Organize information
• Use verbal mnemonics
• Use visual mnemonics
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