Lecture 11: Theological
Developments 1303-1648
Dr. Ann T. Orlando
5 April 2011
CH 500 Lecture 11 Theology 1303-1648
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Introduction
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Historical Review
Precursors to Reformation and Renaissance
Lutheran Theology
Calvin’s Theology
Anabaptists
Catholic Response
Development of Catholic Spirituality
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Historical Review
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th
14
–
th
16
C
Black death, Hundred Year’s War
Avignon Papacy
Great Schism: 2 Popes
Conciliar Movement: 3 Popes
Fall of Constantinople, 1453
Development of strong, competing nations in
Europe in 16th C
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Review: Situation Early to Mid 16th C
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Powerful Ottoman Turks in control of Eastern and Southern
Mediterranean
Spain newly unified after expulsion of Muslims
France and England in uneasy truce
France and HRE in occasional battles over eastern France
Strong National Rulers
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Francois I of France
Charles V HRE (Spain, Germany, Netherlands)
Henry VIII in England
Popes in very weakened political situation after Avignon papacy;
reliant on sale of indulgences and simony for funds
Age of Spanish and Portugese discovery and exploration
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New Theological and Intellectual
Movements
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Key to all new movements was : Opposition
to Scholasticism and Aristotle
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Move from Scholastic terminology and methods to
philology (language)
Move from natural theology to Bible and early
Christian sources
Move from intellect to will
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Early Reactions Against Scholasticism
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Duns Scotus, Franciscan (1265-1308)
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Man comes to knowledge only by illumination from God
Divine will takes precedence over divine intellect; known as
volunteerism
William of Ockham, Franciscan (1285-1347)
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‘Ockham’s razor’ there should be no hypotheses that are
not directly necessary; man is saved by direct action of
God’s grace without any intermediary action
Nominalism; that is, universals are not necessary
Attacked wealth of clergy
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Early Reformers
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John Wycliffe, Wyclif, Wycliff (1324-1384)
 Englishman, denounced Papal control over Church property
 Church as spiritual not a political society
 Emphasis on Scripture and priesthood of all believers
 Opposed to indulgences
 Lollards remained active in England promoting Wycliffe’s
theology
 Wycliffe condemned by Council of Constance, 1415
John Hus (1369-1415)
 Bohemian, influenced by Wycliffe
 Did not accept priesthood of all believers; otherwise in general
agreement with Wycliffe
 Condemned and burned at stake by Council of Constance
 Leader of Bohemian national movement
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15th – 16th Century Intellectual Reform
Movements
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Renaissance - Southern Europe
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Art
Humanism
Reformation – Northern Europe
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Nationalism
Theological Reform
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Renaissance: Humanism
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Starts in Italy as part of Italian Renaissance
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Emphasizes philology over philosophy;
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Renaissance is said to begin when Petrarch reads
Confessions when he ascends Mt. Ventoux, April 26,
in 1336
Study of structure and literal analysis of ancient texts
in original languages, including Bible, rather than
using philosophical methods
Especially critical of Aristotle
Return to the original religious and classical
sources, ad fontes
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Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469 – 1536)
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Augustinian monk
Humanist who encouraged
return to Bible and early
Fathers of Church as a way to
reform
Scripture as the philosophy of
Christ
Optimistic about man’s ability
to know and understand;
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http://www.tate.org.uk/images/cms/1
2567w_messages_erasmus.jpg
ancient maxim that if one
knows what is right, one will do
what is right
Detailed textual work on Bible
and Augustine
Most famous scholar of his
time
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Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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Luther was influenced by
humanism; studied Biblical
languages and the early Church
Fathers, especially Augustine
Driven by internal and external
events
Internal struggle
 As a young Augustinian
monk, Luther struggles to
appease God for his sins
 Finally realizes that nothing
he can do can appease God;
 Salvation must be God’s free
gift that one accepts by faith
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http://www.metmuseum.org/to
ah/images/h2/h2_55.220.2.jpg
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External Struggle:
German Reformation
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The proximate cause of the Reformation: 1517, Albrecht of Mainz
wants to be Archbishop
 Albrecht buys his archbishopric from Rome (Leo X); Rome needs
the money in part to help pay for rebuilding of St. Peters
 Rome authorizes the preaching of a special indulgence in
Germany, with the money to go to Albrecht to repay him
Martin Luther
 Responds to this situation with 95 Theses
 Go far beyond denouncing sin of simony and corruption;
fundamentally calls into question Rome’s primacy and theology of
indulgences; denounces scholasticism
 German princes, especially Fredrick the Wise of Saxony, support
Luther against Rome and against HRE Charles V
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Lutheran Theology: Three Solas
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Sola Scriptura
 Rejection of philosophical developments; Scripture is all that one needs
 Scripture should be available to everyone, unmediated; Luther translates
Bible into German, although with his own interpretation built into it
 Return to original Biblical languages for Biblical study; reject any OT
books not written in Hebrew (deuterocanonical books; i.e., most
philosophical books)
 Very important that everyone can read
Sola Fides
 Faith in Jesus Christ is necessary and sufficient for salvation
 Universal priesthood of all believers
Sola Gratia
 Only God’s grace can save you
 Only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist
 Accepts Real Presence, but not transubstantiation
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Implications of Luther’s Solas
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Rejection of intercession of saints
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Rejection of indulgences
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The only way to know is by the illumination of grace
Salvation is not a process, but an instantaneous change of nature
Does not accept traditional Christian views of anthropology: body, soul, spirit; there is
only one whole person
Rejection of inherent value celibacy
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Theory of indulgences implies Pelagianism
There are no intermediaries between person and God
Rejection of Scholasticism (and philosophy in general)
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Destruction of images of saints,
Churches stripped of decorations
Rejection of relics
Since all are priests, monks, nuns and ordained clergy are no holier than anyone else
Luther and most of his ordained followers marry
Reading and Education
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Important that everyone be able to read the Bible
Luther wrote two catechisms (Large and Small) in a question and answer format
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Luther-Erasmus Debates on Free Will
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Replay of Pelagian controversy
Erasmus writes a book, called On Free Will,
like Augustine wrote early in his career
In response Luther writes a book called On
Bondage of Will, makes points similar to
Augustine against Pelagius on need for
grace, predestination
As in Pelagian controversy, how does one
interpret Paul’s Letter to Romans?
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Lutheran Theologian:
Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560)
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A humanist who studied classical languages
very carefully
Became a close friend of Luther
Wrote the Augsburg Confession (1530)
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An apology for Reformers given to Charles V
Tries to be as conciliatory as possible,
emphasizing points of common belief
Charles V rejects it
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Swiss Reformation: Huldrych Zwingli
(1484-1531)
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A priest, Zwingli becomes member of Zurich city
council
Preaches against Catholic liturgical practice
Denies Real Presence in Eucharist; breaking point
with Luther
Because two can not agree at Marburg (1529), there is
no united Reform movement
Upholds sovereignty of Swiss cantons; but sovereignty
in combination of religion and civil rule based on Bible
Dies in battle fighting for Zurich against Catholic Swiss
cantons in 1531
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John Calvin (1509 - 1564)
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Accepted Luther’s maxim “Sola Scriptura, Sola
Fides, Sola Gratia” and extended it
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Established a ‘holy’ city in Geneva:
Calvinism, had an extensive influence on
Protestant movement, especially in
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Accepted double predestination (as
defined by Augustine)
Rejected real presence in Eucharist
Scotland (Presbyterians),
France (Huguenots)
England (Puritans)
Netherlands (Reformers)
Note that all reformers looked to Augustine as their
‘patron saint’
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Calvin said, “He is one of us”
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Protestants in France
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Francois I supported Humanists in France
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Claimed that the French Church had a special relationship with Papacy (Pepin,
Charlemagne, Avignon)
Defended Pope, but French Church also claimed some independence of Pope
(Gallicanism) with special ties to French throne
Calvin, who was French, sends reformers to France from Geneva
When Francois I dies, French throne is up for grabs with both Catholic and
Calvinists making claims; Catherine de Medici becomes regent, waivers
between appeasement and persecution of Huguenots (French Calvinists)
Religious wars in France, leading to St. Bartholomew Day’s Massacre, 24
August 1572
Eventually Henry IV becomes king; issues Edict of Nantes (1598) in which
Catholicism is official religion of France, but Huguenots have some civil rights
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Originally a Protestant, converted to Catholicism
Henry really a champion of very strong monarchy
Assassinated in 1610
Young son becomes king, Louis XIII
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Anabaptists (Radical Reform)
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Opposed infant baptism; rather baptism should be
accepted when one accepted faith in Jesus Christ
Zwingli and Luther were both opposed to them
Considered themselves completely separate from
State; did not believe that all professing Christians
were part of Church
Politically and religiously exclusive; thus persecuted
by all others as a threat to civil unity
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Models of Church-State Development
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Catholic: Pope over civil rulers
Lutheran: Civil rulers over Church (Romans
13)
Calvinists: Combined into one ruling body to
form a holy community
Anabaptists: Perfect congregation within
broader evil society; witness to, but does not
try to participate in broader society
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Catholic Response Main Points
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Reform of corrupt practice
Affirmation of basic Catholic doctrine
Renewal of Catholic spiritual practice
Arts in service of theology
Historians are at odds what to call
Catholicism in this period
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Counter Reformation
Catholic Reformation
Early Modern Catholicism
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Catholic Response:
Jesuits
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saintpetersbasilica.org/Statues/Founders/Ign
atiusLoyola/St%20Ignatius%20LoyolaFounderSaint.jpg
Jesuits (Society of Jesus)
founded by Ignatius Loyola
(1491-1556)
NOT founded to counter
Reformation; but charter put
Jesuits on front lines against
Reformers
Education very important in
Jesuit belief
Jesuits very focused on
work among people
Jesuit life-style in many
ways opposite that of a
monastery
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Key Points of Jesuit Charter (1541)
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Vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities;
Special relationship to Pope
Increased probations:
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The novitiate is prolonged from one year to two,
A third discernment year after ordination,
Final solemn vows may take years.
The Society does not keep choir.
It does not have a distinctive religious habit.
It is also said to have been the first order to undertake officially
and by virtue of its constitutions active works such as the
following:
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foreign missions, at the pope's bidding;
the education of youth of all classes;
the instruction of the ignorant and the poor;
ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc.
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Catholic Response:
Council of Trent
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Called by Pope Paul III
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Lengthy, intermittent (1545-1563)
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Pope initially reluctant to call council because of bad
experiences with councils (especially Council of
Constance) in 15th C
Purpose was both to address reform of practice and to
uphold Catholic doctrine
Developed in 25 several sessions
Spanning three popes: Paul III, Julius III, Paul IV
Jesuits play a major theological role at Trent;
encouraged explicit statement of Catholic doctrine in
opposition to Protestant views
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Key Theological Statements from
Trent
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Scripture and Tradition
Sacraments are effective by the fact of the
sacramental action being performed, ex opere
operato
Affirmed Mass as sacrifice and transubstantiation of
bread and wine into Body and Blood of Christ
Affirmed 7 sacraments
Affirmed faith with good works together brings about
salvation
Affirmed indulgences and intercession of saints
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Revived Catholic Spirituality:
Teresa of Avila (1515 – 1582)
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Pioneered major reforms of
monastic orders (men and women)
Special relationship with John of
Cross
Encouraged renewed devotion of
Catholics in opposition to
Protestants
First woman declared a doctor of
Church (1970)
John of Cross 1542-1591
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Follower of Theresa of Avila
Mystic and writer of popular
devotional works
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St. Frances de Sales (1567-1622)
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Educated by Jesuits
Argued against Calvinists;
bishop in absentia of
Geneva
Wrote popular devotional
works;
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On Devout Life very influential
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Intended for lay people
(women)
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Religious Map of Europe c. 1560
www.wwnorton.com/college/history/ralph/resource/religion.htm
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Readings
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McManners Ch 7 (233-266)
Read carefully Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, Ignatius
Loyola, Theresa of Avila, Trent documents, De
Sales
OPTIONAL
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Joint Catholic-Lutheran Declaration on Justification
Petrarch, Ascent of Mt Ventoux,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/petrarchventoux.html
As always, read secondary sources critically for
emphasis (bias) of author
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