The American Empire –Unit 4 Reading #1
Beginning in the 1890s, the United States began to practice some of the same imperialistic policies that
it had previously criticized major European powers for. Spurred on by sugar planters, America expanded its
influence in Hawaii and in 1896 annexed the islands. Americans also pushed for an "Open Door" trading policy
in China. Efforts to expand American influence abroad were motivated by economic, political, religious, and
social factors; the "white man's burden" argument was influential in both Europe and the United States. There
were also opponents to imperialism who often based their opposition on moral grounds. American imperialistic
impulses flourished during the Spanish-American War; newly created American naval power was one important
factor in the defeat of Spain. After contentious debate within the United States, America finally decided to
annex the Philippines; it took three years for American forces to defeat Filipino rebels, who instead of fighting
the Spanish now resisted their new occupiers, the Americans. Americans finished building the Panama Canal in
1914; the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine further increased American influence in Latin America.
Keywords
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Open Door policy: policy supported by the United States beginning in 1899 that stated that all
major powers, including the United States, should have an equal right to trade in China.
Social Darwinism: philosophy that emerged from the writings of Charles Darwin on the "survival of
the fittest"; this was used to justify the vast differences between the rich and the poor in the late
nineteenth century as well as American and European imperialistic ventures.
Spanish-American War: war that began in 1898 against the Spanish over treatment of Cubans by
Spanish troops that controlled the island. As a result of this war, the United States annexed the
Philippines, making America a major power in the Pacific.
Yellow journalism: a method of journalism that utilizes sensationalized accounts of the news to sell
newspapers; this approach helped to whip up nationalistic impulses that led to the Spanish-American
War.
USS Maine: U.S. naval ship that sank in Havana harbor in February 1898 following an explosion;
the incident was used to increase calls for war against Spain. It was never definitively determined
why or how the ship was sunk.
Panama Canal: canal across the Panama isthmus that was begun in 1904 and completed in 1914; its
opening enabled America to expand its economic and military influence.
Roosevelt Corollary (1904): policy that warned Europeans against intervening in the affairs of
Latin America and that claimed the right of the United States to intervene in the affairs of Latin
American nations if "chronic wrongdoing" was taking place.
Dollar Diplomacy: foreign policy supported by President William Howard Taft and others that
favored increased American investment in the world as a way of increasing American influence.
A Period of Foreign Policy Inaction
In the years immediately after the Civil War, the United States aggressively sought out new territories to acquire
or to economically control. In 1867, the United States purchased Alaska from the Russians. During the same
year, the Midway Islands were also annexed, as the United States was also searching for potential bases in the
Pacific Ocean.
The United States did not take part in imperialistic adventures until the 1890s. Several reasons can be cited for
this. America was still expanding, but this expansion was still westward; the American frontier did not totally
close until the last decade of the century. In addition, rapid industrial growth, urban growth, and a large influx
of immigrants kept America occupied for much of the later nineteenth century. Another factor was that most of
the men in power had been veterans of the Civil War or had intimate knowledge of it. These men had little
stomach for further warfare, which imperialism was likely to bring.
A Sign of Things to Come: Hawaii
An initial indication that American attitudes toward the use of force abroad was first demonstrated by American
actions in Hawaii. American missionaries had first come to Hawaii in the 1820s. The United States was, for
obvious reasons, interested in Hawaii's sugar plantations. In 1887, a deal was struck allowing sugar from the
islands to be imported into America duty-free. This stimulated the sugar trade in Hawaii. Sugar planters in
Hawaii exerted tremendous economic and political power; during that same year, they forced King Kalakaua to
accept a new constitution that took away some of his political power and put it in their hands.
In 1891, the king died, and his sister, Queen Liliuokalani, replaced him. By this point, planters in Hawaii, and
some members of the United States Senate, saw the obvious economic advantages of turning Hawaii into a
United States protectorate. Queen Liliuokalani vigorously rejected this; her goal was to greatly reduce the
influence of foreign countries, especially the United States, in Hawaii. In 1893, pro-American sugar planters,
assisted by American marines, overthrew the queen, declared Hawaii to be a republic, and requested Hawaii be
annexed by the United States. This takeover was partially a reaction to U.S. tariff policies, which favored
domestic producers. If Hawaii was annexed, then planters from Hawaii would be considered domestic
producers.
Much debate took place on the floor of the Senate on the proper role of the United States in Hawaii. President
Grover Cleveland sent a commission to Hawaii to determine the wishes of the citizens of Hawaii concerning
their future. After the commission reported that most people interviewed supported Queen Liliuokalani,
Cleveland announced that he was opposed to annexation but recognized the Republic of Hawaii. President
McKinley had no such reservations after his election in 1896, stating that it was "manifest destiny" that the
United States should control Hawaii. Congress soon approved annexation, largely on the promise that future
military bases placed in Hawaii could cement America's strategic position in the Pacific.
It also should be noted that American economic interests required increased involvement in China during this
period as well. The possibility of investment in China would cause Secretary of State John Hay to ask European
leaders for an Open Door policy in China in 1899, which would allow all foreign nations, including the United
States, to establish trading relations with China.
During this era, the desire for American expansion did not extend to the Middle East. American Christian
missionaries were active in the region throughout the nineteenth century. American religious groups founded
Robert College in Turkey in 1863 and the Syrian Protestant College in 1866; students in both schools were the
sons of the local governmental and social elites. In the first years of the twentieth century, many fears were
expressed in the Middle East about possible encroachment by the European "imperialist" powers; during these
discussions, there was virtually no mention of the United States.
The 1890s: Reasons for American Imperialism
By the 1890s, many American leaders began to have new attitudes toward imperialistic adventures abroad. The
reasons for this were also numerous. At the forefront of those pushing for an aggressive American policy abroad
were various industrial leaders, who feared that the United States would soon produce more than it could ever
consume. New dependent states could prove to be markets for these goods. Some in business also perceived that
in the future, industries would need raw materials that could simply not be found in America (rubber and
petroleum products, for example). In the future, America would need dependent states to provide these
materials.
Other influential Americans stated that it was important for political reasons that America expand. Bases would
be needed in the future in the Pacific, many claimed—thus the need to acquire strategic locations in that region.
Many of those interested in reviving the American navy also were very interested in imperialistic adventures;
the Naval Act of 1900 authorized the construction of battleships that would be clearly offensive in nature. A
major supporter of naval expansion was Captain Alfred T. Mahan, who in 1890 wrote The Influence of Sea
Power upon History, which stated that to be economically successful America must gain new markets abroad;
the navy would have to be expanded to accomplish this.
Several other factors accounted for the increased American interest in foreign frontiers in the 1890s. The
concept of Social Darwinism was used by supporters of imperialism, as were ideas, many imported from
Europe, about the racial superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race. Our Country, written in 1885 by Josiah Strong,
stated that God had appointed the Anglo-Saxons to be their "brother's keepers." Some Americans believed in
Kipling's "White Man's Burden" and felt it was their duty to civilize the "inferior races" of Africa and Asia.
This was also the period when American missionaries felt the time was right to Christianize the "heathen" of
these regions. Others, including Senator Albert J. Beveridge of Indiana, feared that the American spirit would
be sapped by the closing of the frontier and suggested that adventures abroad might help offset this. It should
also be remembered that a new generation of Americans, less affected by the horrors of the Civil War, was now
in positions of power in Washington, DC.