Research Topics
Affirmative Action -- For more than three decades, the U.S. government, local governments and private businesses have
enacted a range of policies intended to benefit women and minorities. Collectively referred to as "affirmative action,"
these policies have sparked heated debate wherever they have been pursued. Supporters believe that affirmative action is
necessary to "even the playing field" for historically disadvantaged groups and to diversify the workforce. Opponents of
affirmative action hold that it unfairly discriminates on the basis of gender and race and that it might actually do harm to
the populations it is intended to benefit. A series of controversial U.S. Supreme Court decisions has gradually limited and
defined the use of affirmative action.
Capital Punishment -- More than 1,000 state and federal prisoners have been executed since 1976, when the U.S.
Supreme Court reversed its ban on capital punishment. In the U.S. as in nearly every country where it is legal, the
death penalty is a controversial response to crime. The protests and debates prompted by its use have caused
governments around the world to refine—and sometimes reconsider entirely—their use of capital punishment.
Civil Liberties in the War on Terror -- Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, improving national
security has loomed large on the public agenda. Many Americans, however, are wary of security measures that
might infringe upon their constitutionally protected civil liberties. The potential conflict between national security
and civil liberties has cropped up throughout American history and, as these links demonstrate, has pervaded the
"War on Terror" in which the U.S. is engaged.
Climate Change -- During the 20th century, average temperatures on Earth rose about one degree Fahrenheit.
Natural fluctuations in temperature have marked the planet's history, but climate scientists have theorized since the
1970s that the current warming is the result of a "greenhouse effect" caused by certain gases that are released into
the atmosphere by human activity. Although most mainstream scientists adhere to the notion that human institutions
are at least partly responsible for the current warming trend, some dissent still exists in the scientific community.
This dissent has been highlighted by opponents of policy initiatives to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Since
carbon dioxide released by the burning of fossil fuels is the principal greenhouse gas, efforts to force emissions
reductions would have wide-ranging effects on industries and economies. The Kyoto Protocol, an international
treaty in which 141 nations agreed to reduce their greenhouse-gas emissions, came into force in 2005. The U.S. was
not a party to the treaty, having withdrawn its support in 2001.
Election Reform in the United States -- The controversial presidential election of 2000 inspired many Americans
to examine the way their country chooses its leaders. The accuracy and fairness of different types of voting
machines and the electoral system itself have come under greater public scrutiny since that election. Two reforms to
the U.S. election system—in the areas of campaign finance and congressional redistricting—are perennially debated
in Congress and sometimes find their way to the Supreme Court. State and federal proposals to require voters to
show certain kinds of identification at polling places have also generated debate.
European Union -- In 1951, leaders of six European nations established a supranational economic body intended
to help the continent recover from World War II. The decades that followed saw increased economic cooperation
between the member states and the inclusion of six more European nations. There was also a gradual momentum
towards a political union, and in 1993, the twelve members of the European Community cemented their political
and economic ties, becoming the European Union (EU). In recent years, the EU has expanded to include 13 more
nations, many of them former members of the Soviet bloc. EU leaders are currently involved in negotiations about
further expansion and a new European constitution.
Free Trade -- international commerce unimpeded by government subsidies and import tariffs—has long been a
stated goal of U.S. economic policy. The U.S. has been a driving force behind the World Trade Organization
(WTO), an international body created to liberalize trade and moderate trade disputes between national governments.
But the pressure to retain certain subsidies and tariffs has been strong within the U.S., and U.S. policy does not
always reflect the country's outspoken support of free trade. At the same time, large groups of people in the U.S.
and elsewhere have come to believe that unregulated trade harms the environment and contributes to the economic
oppression of unskilled laborers. Large and sometimes violent protests against the WTO and other symbols of free
trade have erupted around the world over the last decade.
Human Rights in China -- China, the world's most populous country, since the 1970s has steadily grown in
prominence in international affairs and the global economy, focusing worldwide attention on its human rights
record. The Communist-ruled country has pursued a path of economic liberalization coupled with firm social
controls, a formula that it contends is vital to maintaining stability as it makes the transition to a market-based
economy. A short-lived flourishing of open political expression, the 1978-79 "Democracy Wall" movement, was
suppressed, with prominent dissidents jailed. However, demands for democratization threatened to escape the
government's control amid student-led demonstrations in Beijing's Tiananmen Square in 1989. The authorities
ultimately responded with a violent military crackdown, and determination to prevent a similar movement has been
a top priority of China's internal security agencies. China has also sought to suppress dissident activity in the Tibet
region, contending that rights activists there are separatists seeking to subvert the state. Greater economic freedoms
and increasing links with the rest of the world continue to raise new human rights questions.
Immigration Policy in the U.S. --In March 2006, a strict immigration and border security bill passed by the U.S.
House of Representatives generated impassioned debate involving Congress, the administration of President
George W. Bush and large groups of U.S. residents who took to the streets in demonstrations and marches. At issue
was the future of U.S. policy toward those who immigrate to the country in search of better economic prospects or
reunion with family members already settled in the U.S. Since the early 1950s, questions of who should be allowed
to immigrate legally and how to deal with those who immigrate illegally have challenged the federal and state
governments. In 1965, a 40-year-old system of quotas based on the race and national origins of potential
immigrants was replaced by a system based on the skills and family ties of those wishing to immigrate. In the 40
years since this fundamental policy change, questions of economic balance, labor rights, national identity and
government responsibility toward those within its borders have kept immigration at the center of a heated political
debate.
International Criminal Court -- On July 1, 2002, a permanent international tribunal for the trial of accused war
criminals came into being after years of intense international negotiations. The International Criminal Court (ICC),
located in The Hague, the Netherlands, began operations in 2003 despite fierce opposition from the U.S.
government under the administration of President George W. Bush. U.S. opponents of the ICC cite the possibility
that it could prosecute U.S. military personnel on frivolous or politically motivated charges. The ICC has forged
ahead without U.S. participation, taking on cases from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Sudan.
The ICC's supporters consider it vital as both a means of pursuing justice for victims of genocide, war crimes and
crimes against humanity and as a means of deterring future such violations of international law.
Right to Die -- Technologies that can prolong the lives of the terminally ill and incapacitated have brought with
them a group of difficult questions about patients' rights at the end of life. The most basic question facing
governments and societies involves a dying patient's right to refuse life-sustaining medical treatment. Additional
complications arise when a patient is no longer capable of expressing wishes, and relatives and guardians are left to
make decisions on behalf of their loved ones. And if suffering patients have the right to forgo life-sustaining
treatment, do they also have the right to ask their doctors to help them hasten an inevitable death? In a series of
decisions, the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized a constitutional "right to die" and the need for safeguards against
abuse of this right, but it has declined to stipulate a right to doctor-assisted suicide.
Stem Cell Research -- In July 2006, President George W. Bush vetoed a bill for the first time in his presidency,
rejecting legislation that would have ended constraints on federal funding for human embryonic stem cell research.
The isolation of human embryonic stem cells—which have the potential to become any kind of cell in the body—in
1998 set off an ethical debate that has raged ever since. Proponents of stem cell research see in it the potential to
save lives through the discovery of cures for deadly diseases. Opponents of the practice, however, consider stem
cell research deeply immoral because it requires the destruction of embryos.
Supreme Court Nominations --In 2005, U.S. President George W. Bush was called upon to nominate candidates
for two positions on the United States' highest court. The Supreme Court nomination process has often been
controversial, and the 2005 nominations were no exception. Having faced a great deal of criticism and questioning
from the Senate and from outside pressure groups, one of President Bush's embattled nominees stepped down. Two
others were confirmed despite strong opposition from some Democrats in Congress.
U.S. – Iraq Relations: Between Two Wars -- In March 2003, a coalition of countries led by the U.S. invaded Iraq
and ousted the regime of President Saddam Hussein. The U.S. case for going to war was based largely on claims
that Iraq had not cooperated with weapons monitoring regimes created at the end of an earlier U.S.-led campaign,
the 1991 Persian Gulf War sparked by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. The Persian Gulf War came after the U.S. had
quietly bolstered Iraq as a regional counterweight to Iran. It resulted, however, in a decade of discord between the
U.S. and Iraq that was marked by failed diplomacy, heavy economic sanctions on Iraq and intermittent violence.
Women’s Issues -- In the 20th century, women gained the right to vote and enter into many professions formerly
dominated by men. Women now run major companies, serve as high-ranking public officials and play professional
sports. But the inclusion of women in certain areas of life, such as in the military, still sparks controversy. Although
women have achieved equality with men in some areas, there are still challenges to be overcome such as
objectification and sexual harassment?
Zero Tolerance Policies -- In order to increase the effectiveness of school discipline, many policy makers have advocated
so-called zero tolerance policies. Zero tolerance refers to measures that require a set punishment, such as suspension, for
students who break a specific rule. In 1994, President Clinton (D) signed the Gun-Free Schools Act, which required states
to pass zero-tolerance laws that would expel for one year all students who take guns or similar weapons to school.
In the 1996-97 school year alone, more than 6,000 students were expelled for taking weapons to school, according to the
New York Times. Many observers applaud the Gun-Free Schools Act for deterring students from taking weapons to school
and for keeping dangerous students away from their peers. Many states and districts have expanded on the mandates of
the law and have also enacted zero-tolerance policies for violent behavior or for threatening speech. Backers of the
policies say they help intercept students before they commit dangerous offenses.
College Entrance Exams -- Comprised of a verbal section and a math section, the SAT (also known as the "Big Test") is
an assessment test used in the admissions process of about 90% of the four-year colleges in the nation. Other
postsecondary schools, particularly those in the central U.S., use a standardized achievement test called the American
College Test (ACT) as an alternative to the SAT. The ACT, administered by the American College Testing Board in Iowa
City, Iowa, is different from the SAT in that it tests what high school students have already learned, rather than what they
have the potential to learn. At large universities, college admission analysts say, standardized test scores can have as much
impact on admissions as all other factors combined. At smaller colleges and universities, students' SAT or ACT scores are
often deemed to be slightly less important. However, at many postsecondary schools, both big and small, standardized test
scores can play an important role in determining how much financial aid a student receives, or whether the student is
awarded a college scholarship. Although they have been a mainstay of the college-application process for decades,
standardized tests have come under increasing fire from education officials during the past few years. Disgruntled
educators and admissions officials contend that "high-stakes testing"--whereby students take one-shot exams that seek to
assess their knowledge or intellectual abilities--have a negative effect on the academic world and do not accurately reflect
students' merit.
Genetic Testing -- Genetic tests examine cells for particular genes, for variations in the DNA sequence within genes, and
for other, related indicators. Doctors can determine from the test results the likelihood that a person will develop a
particular illness. Genetic testing is sometimes used to allow a person to take medical precautions, such as making diet or
lifestyle changes, if he or she is found to be at risk, or can be given in response to symptoms the person is exhibiting.
Another type of genetic testing screens embryos to determine if they are at risk of serious disease. Embryos that are not at
risk are then used for impregnation. Advances in how precisely fertility clinics can screen embryos for disease have been
made recently. One of the more controversial features of genetic testing is its use by employers and health insurance
providers. Employers could have an interest in obtaining information on genetic diseases job applicants might be carrying,
to avoid hiring those who might become sick. While there have been few high-profile cases where employers were
accused of inappropriately obtaining genetic data, some experts express concern that the practice could become more
common in the future. Health insurance companies, meanwhile, could use information from genetic testing to determine
whether to offer coverage to particular people and how high a premium to charge them.
Effects of the Iraq War on the Middle East -- The U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, which began in 2003, was conducted
as part of the global war on terrorism, a campaign declared by President Bush (R) in the aftermath of a terrorist
attack against the U.S. on Sept. 11, 2001. By using armed force in Iraq, the U.S. military aimed to topple the
government of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein and hinder the country's ability to produce weapons of mass
destruction (WMDs). Now in its third year, the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq has produced mixed results,
according to many observers. While U.S. military officials concede that no WMDs will likely be found in Iraq,
they assert that the U.S. presence in that country, by facilitating the rise of representative government, has had a
positive impact on the Iraqi people. Furthermore, many of the war's supporters contend that the spread of
democracy within Iraq could have a substantial impact on political developments within other Arab countries.
However, like the global war on terrorism, the war in Iraq has been criticized by both allies and enemies of the
U.S. Aside from denouncing the U.S. military's failure to find any WMDs in Iraq, many critics have argued that
the U.S.-led occupation is bolstering terrorist organizations' ability to attract new recruits. Consequently, they
say, U.S. policy in Iraq is working against the larger goals of the war on terrorism by fostering, rather than
stamping out, terrorist activity in the region. "From Al Qaeda's point of view," the IISS says, speaking of the
terrorist group accused of carrying out the Sept. 11 attacks, "Bush's Iraq policies have arguably produced a
confluence of propitious circumstances: a strategically bogged down America, hated by much of the Islamic
world and regarded warily even by its allies."
Political Talk Radio -- Right now, on AM radio stations across the U.S., hundreds of politically minded talk show hosts
are expressing their opinions of the day's current events for all to hear. The political talk radio format--in which pundits
recap recent news, usually peppered with their own personal views--has risen to great popularity in the U.S. since the late
1980s. The designation "political talk radio" is essentially synonymous with "conservative talk radio." Nearly all radio
talk hosts skew to the right side of the political spectrum; in fact, the 44 highest-rated talk radio stations broadcast more
than 300 hours of conservative talk each week. That is compared with just five hours of liberal or progressive
programming, according to a survey by the Senate Democratic Policy Committee. Conservative figures such as Rush
Limbaugh and Sean Hannity host some of the most popular radio programs in the country. Liberal critics maintain that the
glut of conservative commentators on the radio has had an unhealthy effect on the nation's political discourse, legitimizing
certain far-right views and repressing nuanced debate on significant topics. Supporters, however, point out that
conservative radio has proven to be immensely popular with the U.S.'s radio audience; therefore, the hosts must be doing
something right, they say. Furthermore, proponents say, conservative talk radio is necessary to balance the liberal slant of
the mainstream media. Supporters also argue that talk radio contributes positively to the U.S.'s national political
conversation, since it inspires listeners to think about and discuss current events.
Beauty and Body Image -- The overall number of cosmetic surgeries in the U.S. has more than quadrupled in the past
seven years. More than 200,000 teenagers undergo cosmetic surgery each year, while some 66% of high school girls are
on diets at any given time. Our nation is seemingly obsessed with physical improvement. Some critics say that beauty
pageants and the media’s focus on physical beauty present an unattainable ideal of beauty and that the rise in cosmetic
surgery is a trend that should be curbed. On the popular network television show "The Swan," broadcast into the homes of
millions of viewers across the country each week, 10 individuals compete to change their appearance through cosmetic
surgery; the winner is the one deemed the most transformed of the group. The show's first winner altered her appearance
so severely that her fiancé did not even recognize her when she showed up at the altar on their wedding day. The overall
number of cosmetic surgeries--operations done purely for aesthetic purposes--in the U.S. has more than quadrupled in the
past seven years. And as television shows on plastic surgery proliferate and the media influence widens via the Internet,
advertising and the ever-increasing number of fitness and beauty magazines, doctors are expressing concern at what they
describe as the cavalier way that many patients approach plastic surgery