During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the
growth of fascist regimes?
During the inter-war years, fascism spread to countries including Poland, Portugal
and Spain. However, its only long-lasting successes were in Italy, under Benito
Mussolini, and in Germany under Adolf Hitler. As a political philosophy, fascism
stood for extreme nationalism, racism, totalitarianism and expansionism in foreign
policy, and was strongly anti-communist. Factors including economic depression, the
fear of communism and the use of propaganda allowed it to gain popularity.
Following the end of World War I, dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles,
signed on 28 June 1919, led people to turn to fascism. Italy had gained the regions of
Trentino, South Tyrol and Istria. However, Italians felt they should receive all the
land promised under the 1915 Treaty of London, such as Dalmatia, which was
awarded to Yugoslavia. The town of Fiume, with a significant Italian population,
became a Free City under the control of the League of Nations. In 1919, this led
Gabriele D’Annunzio to seize Fiume and create a fascist-style regime with the Roman
salute, speeches and marches. He was removed by Italian troops in January 1921. In
Germany, the Treaty was called the Diktat, or dictated peace. Germany lost oneeighth of its territory to Belgium, Denmark, France, Lithuania and Poland. East
Prussia became separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor. The Saar
region was placed under international control and new countries such as
Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Poland were formed from the Austrian, German and
Russian Empires. The German army was reduced to 100,000 men, the country’s navy
reduced to six battleships and conscription forbidden. Under the War Guilt Clause,
Germany was ordered to pay reparations of ₤6.6 billion.
Unemployment in Italy rose to 2 million after the war, leading people to look to
fascism for solutions to economic problems. There was rapid inflation, with a 50%
increase in prices between 1919 and 1921. Widespread industrial unrest led to a
general strike in September 1920, where 500,000 workers occupied factories. In the
countryside, farmers formed Peasant Leagues to defend their interests. Against this
background, in March 1919, Mussolini formed his political party, the Fascio di
Combattimento. In Germany, the bill presented in 1921 by the Allied Reparations
Commission caused similar problems. At the end of 1922, the German government
defaulted on their payments. During the resulting French occupation of the Ruhr,
money was printed to pay workers. Unemployment rose to 23% due to the loss of
production in the Ruhr. Hyperinflation allowed Hitler to attempt his putsch in
Munich. A period of recovery was ruined by the Depression following the Wall Street
Crash of 1929, as Germany remained dependent on US loans. Unemployment rose to
6 million by 1933 and people looked to extreme solutions.
Both Italy and Germany had only been unified in 1870-71, and the lack of a strong
democratic tradition allowed the growth of fascist dictatorships. A number of weak
coalition governments existed in Italy between 1919 and 1922, with 5 different prime
ministers. Italians began to lose faith in democracy and looked for a strong leader or
dictator to solve their problems. After the March on Rome, King Victor Emmanuel
looked to Mussolini’s strong government for solutions. In Germany, the Weimar
Republic averaged a new government every 9 months. With the withdrawal of loans
from the US, Weimar governments could not cope with the impact of the Depression.
They were forced to rule by decree to introduce unpopular measures. The chancellor,
Heinrich Brüning, became known as the “hunger chancellor,” as he lost the support of
citizens. His reliance on Article 48, which gave the president emergency powers to
pass laws, endangered democracy.
As conditions in Italy began to resemble those that had existed in Russia in 1917,
the fear of communism led Italians to support fascist leaders. Workers’ councils
formed in some factories were similar to the soviets set up in Lenin’s Russia. The
period of industrial unrest between 1919-21 became known as the Two Red Years. In
Germany, the Communist Spartacus League, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rose
Luxemburg, began a revolt in January 1919. Although the army and the Freikorps
defeated the revolutionaries, fear of a communist takeover grew. In May, another
Communist revolt in Bavaria was defeated. However, the Communist Party continued
to seek a Soviet republic similar to the USSR under Lenin and Stalin. In both
countries, fascist leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler were seen as protectors from
the spread of communism.
The ability of charismatic leaders such as Hitler and Mussolini to exploit
nationalist sentiment played a crucial role. Mussolini attracted support by promising a
return to old Roman glories. Similarly, Hitler spoke of the “Third Reich” and a return
to former glories such as the Bismarck era. Mussolini’s use of the Blackshirts, the
straight arm salute, marches and parades showed strength. Both were also outstanding
speakers.
The use of violence and propaganda by fascist parties also helped them to gain
power. Unemployed soldiers were recruited into combat groups such as the Squadristi
in Italy and the SA in Germany. In Italy left-wing party and newspaper officers were
attacked and burned. Roughly 2000 people were victims of political violence between
1919 and 1922. The police and army, sympathetic to Mussolini, often turned a blind
eye to fascist violence. Hitler’s attempt at violent revolution was largely halted by the
Beer Hall Putsch of 8 November 1923, in which 16 Nazis were killed. Both made
excellent use of propaganda, Mussolini giving himself the title “Il Duce” and Hitler
“Der Führer.” In Germany, the greeting “Heil Hitler” was made compulsory for all
party members, adding to the cult of personality surrounding Hitler. Nazi propaganda
was aided by figures such as Joseph Goebbels, who became Hitler’s Minister for
Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, and later the director Leni Riefenstahl.
Both leaders were elected democratically, Mussolini after he planned the March on
Rome and Hitler with the aid of right-wing plotting, and both used the power of the
state to create fascist totalitarian regimes. In November 1923, the Acerbo Law was
passed in Italy, giving the party with the greatest number of votes in a general election
two thirds of the seats in parliament. The April 1924 election saw Mussolini’s party
receive 65% of votes. Following the murder of Matteoti, the remaining non-fascist
MPs resigned from parliament in the Aventine Secession, increasing Mussolini’s
power. A law passed on Christmas Eve 1925 stated that only the king could dismiss
Mussolini. In November 1926, after an attempt on Mussolini’s life, all non-fascist
parties were banned. The Fascist Grand Council replaced the parliament, bringing an
end to democracy. Hitler’s Decree of the President for the Protection of People and
State, passed following the Reichstag fire, formed the basis of police power in
Germany. The Enabling Act, which followed the 1933 election, allowed the
government to pass laws without the approval of parliament or president. The
Communist Party were banned on 7 March 1933 and the Social Democrats on 21 June
1933, while other parties dissolved themselves. The death of President Hindenburg in
August 1934 allowed Hitler to combine the offices of President and chancellor.
Hitler and Mussolini’s expansionism contributed to the growth of fascism in
Europe. Mussolini used wars in Libya and Abyssinia to gain new territory. Hitler’s
introduction of conscription and remilitarisation of the Rhineland gave military power
to fascism. The Anschluss with Austria also aided the growth of Hitler’s regime.
Hitler’s taking of control in the Sudetenland and eventually the rest of Czechoslovakia
in March 1939 also allowed fascist ideas to spread. However, with the invasion of
Poland Hitler’s expansionism led to the Second World War, which would ultimately
destroy fascism.
Economic and political turmoil following World War I undoubtedly played a
major role in bringing fascist leaders to power. These problems, along with the ability
of Hitler and Mussolini to exploit such circumstances for their own gain, allowed
fascism to grow rapidly in Europe until its defeat in 1945.