iReporting and its effect on Consumer Trust of Television
News
A Thesis
submitted to the Faculty of the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
of Georgetown University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Master of Arts
in Communication, Culture & Technology
By
Nisha Venkatesan, Student, M.A.
Georgetown University
Washington, DC
April 25, 2008
Table of Contents
I. Abstract.....................................................................................................................................3
II. Introduction:............................................................................................................................6
III. Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework....................................................................................12
1. Theories of the Past & Present....................................................................................13
2. Key Terms.......................................................................................................................19
3. Modeling the Relationship............................................................................................24
4. Measuring the Variables................................................................................................27
IV. Chapter 3: The History of Television News....................................................................32
1. One way Relationship....................................................................................................32
2. Two way relationship.....................................................................................................34
3. Defining Variables in the Historical Context.............................................................37
V. Chapter 4: Content Analysis................................................................................................53
1. iReports in the Content Analysis..........................................................................56
2. Interactivity Broken Down by Days.....................................................................59
3. Changes in the Format of the Newscast..............................................................67
4. Television Ratings and Consumer Need Gratification................................. ....70
VI. Chapter 5: Reciprocal Relationship....................................................................................73
1. On-Air Interactivity............................................................................................73
2. CNN's commitment to iReporting..................................................................74
3. CNN's Revenues.................................................................................................76
4. Group Gain Reciprocity....................................................................................79
5. Survey data analysis: survey 240 people of all ages.......................................81
1. Further Analysis of Control Variables...................................................86
2. Correlation between increased consumer interaction and trusting
iReporting...................................................................................................91
VII. Conclusion............................................................................................................................93
2. Shortcomings in methodology.....................................................................................95
1. Areas for further research......................................................................................96
2. Recommendations to CNN...................................................................................99
3. Bibliography............................................................................................................101
V. Appendices, Graphs & Exhibits
1. Appendix B: Interactivity Criteria..............................................................................109
2. Appendix C: Content Analysis...................................................................................110
3. Graphs A – D...............................................................................................................154
4. Graphs E – N...............................................................................................................156
5. Exhibit One: T- Test...................................................................................................161
6. Exhibit Two: Control Variables.................................................................................165
7. Exhibit Three: Frequency + Trust in iReporting....................................................176
8. Appendix D: Summary Responses ...........................................................................180
9. Appendix E: Sample Survey......................................................................................186
ii
iReporting and its effect on Consumer Trust of Television News
Nisha Venkatesan, Student M.A.
Thesis Advisor: Professor Linda Garcia, Ph.D.
Abstract
One of the reasons that viewership of television news continues to grow is because
of the trust relationship between the consumer and the news media. Katz's “Uses &
Gratifications” approach is rooted in the study of why trust is vested into the media and how
subsequent opinions of reality are formed. He states that “media users play an active role in
choosing and using the media. Users take an active part in the communication process and
are goal oriented in their media use.”1 This theory further suggests that consumers trust the
media because the media meets the consumers' need for information. It also explicitly states
that the viewer has a choice of how the media will affect them; it provides the consumer with
agency to decide to what extent he/she will trust the media and how the media will affect
him/her.
Historically, trust in television news has varied. Traditionally, people used to trust
face to face communication and word of mouth significantly more than any form of mass
media. But according to a Gallup Poll conducted during the end of the 20th century on the
Publics' use and view of media, word of mouth is less trusted than CNN, public television
news, local television news, and prime-time TV news magazines. “News anchors Americans
see on television are considered more reliable as sources of accurate information than
1 Communication Capstone Spring 2001 Theory Workbook. Kentucky: University of Kentucky, 2001.
Uses & Gratification Theory. 22 Jan. 2008 <http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/uses.htm>.
iii
personal acquaintances.”2 This is a clear example that shows that as the format of news
begins to shift, so too does the level of trust consumers vest into television news.
Today, society is in the midst of an entirely new phenomena in the television news
media format. As innovation is the catalyst for change, CNN adopted the idea of
“iReporting,” in which the consumer is the reporter. Much like YouTube, where consumers
create their own content and post it for the world to see, iReporting allows the consumer to
send video streams from a cellphone or other portable electronic devices to the news station
to be broadcast to the world as legitimate news. Its inception began with the wake of
Hurricane Katrina and subsequently other iReports followed ranging from the shooting at
VT to the bridge collapse in MN. iReporting became a popular form of reporting and is
now depicted as a legitimate source of news. Most important, it adds a new element to
news; it is not filtered by bureaucracy or management, but rather is 'pure news' which is
more honest and 'raw' than news filtered by reporters or correspondents.
The advent of iReporting in the news raises a significant question. How has the
emergence of iReporting by CNN affected consumer trust in CNN as a television news
media? This thesis seeks to answer this question.
Drawing on Katz's previous research of the formation of trust in the media via the
Gratification Theory and current perceptions of the television news media, this thesis
suggests the following hypothesis.3 It argues that iReporting enhances the trust consumers
2 Saltzman, Joe. "Who Do You Trust and Why? - the Television Broadcasting of News is Trusted by
More People Than Any Other Source of News, Including World of Mouth." USA Today Jan. 2000. 17
Jan. 2008 <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_2656_128/ai_58576589>.
3 Chandler, Daniel. Cultivation Theory. Annenburg School of Communication, UPenn. Livingston, AL:
iv
have in CNN due to the fact that the news is being created by the consumer him/herself.
Whether the iReport itself is trustworthy is irrelevant; consumers are more likely to trust
iReporting because they have the agency to create the iReport, which inherently makes it
more trustworthy than reports created for consumption by the mass media. It is important
to note, however, that simply because these reports might be more 'believable,' they are not
necessarily 'accurate.'
To answer this question and test this hypothesis, this thesis proceeds as follows.
Chapter two provides a conceptual framework analyzing the literature defining trust and
relating the notion of trust to the television news media. Trust will be defined in accordance
with Katz's Uses and Gratification theory. In addition, key terms in a trust relationship
between the user and the media format will be identified. Chapter three analyzes the history
of television news media, primarily focusing on its transition from reporting news to
reporting entertainment stories, as in the case of tabloids and celebrity stories. Then, in
order to identify the onset of iReporting, chapter four provides the results of a content
analysis of CNN from 1990 – 2008 . Second, the chapter will analyze surveys, which have
been distributed among a random sample to determine consumer trust of news and
particularly the new feature of iReporting on CNN. This data will be used to reach
conclusions about the affect iReporting has had on consumer's trust of the news and
specifically, whether the factors of age/gender/income level play any role in determining
trust of the news. The final chapter concludes with of an overview and analysis of the
research findings and explains any discrepancies between the literature and the research.
UWA, 1995. 20 Jan. 2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/cultiv.html>.
v
Introduction
The viability of news media depends on the trust relationship between the audience
and the medium. Without trust, consumers have little motivation to watch television news.
The purpose of watching is more than just information seeking, it also revolves around the
assurance that time invested in watching is worthwhile. This is true whether consumers seek
information, entertainment or some other form of gratification.
Trust associated with television news has varied over time and circumstance. The
key factors determining levels of trust are the changes in the media format itself and the
environment in which television news is embedded. For example, with respect to format,
trust relationships are formed between the news anchors and their captivated audiences by
creating a rapport of repeated viewing. Viewers apparently trust the seniority, competence
and style of particular news anchors and are satisfied just reading the news, not living it.4
Circumstances also matter. For instance, trust is more easily established during times of
turmoil and conflict than in times of peace. As Barbie Zelizer states,
“For Americans to understand what is really going on in war, journalists have an
obligation to provide context for their stories. No news organization can tell the
entire story alone. However, it is the reader's responsibility to read broadly to gather
multiple perspectives of the same event or issue to develop a more complete picture
and understanding...”5
Today, both format and circumstance are rapidly changing. Technology is becoming
4 Stanley, Alessandra. "Anchor in a Desert War: Brian Williams, Reporting." New York Times 8 Mar.
2007. 6 Feb. 2008 <http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/08/arts/television/08watc.html>.
5 Zelizer, Barbie. ""When War Reporting is More Imagined Than Real"" Hamilton College, New York.
31 Aug. 2007. 6 Feb. 2008 <http://www.hamilton.edu/news/more_news/display.cfm?id=12613>.
1
more readily available to allow increased interaction between consumers and the television
news media. This trend has resulted in viewer participation in on-air activities. Viewers send
questions, blog, on the station's website and log into to station chat rooms to discuss news
topics. The news feeds off of viewers’ contributions, by posting discussion topics on their
websites, reading discussion questions on the air, and prompting viewer response. Just as
viewer formats are changing so too are the circumstances in which the news is being
presented. One need only consider how the increased connectedness and complexity have
increased the need for acquisition of knowledge in different forms.
The information age has breathed new life into consumers. For the first time viewers
can themselves interact with the media, and each other through the media. Given this new
relationship between the media and the masses, begs the question: how have today’s
circumstances and changing technological formats affected viewers’ trust in the news?
This thesis seeks to answer this question. In particular, it focuses on CNN’s usage of
a new technology called “iReporting.” iReporting is the practice by which consumers send
video streams from a cellphone or other portable electronic device to CNN, where it is then
broadcast to the world. This practices turns the consumer into a reporter. Because it allows
increased consumer agency about the nature of the news, and how it will be produced and
consumed, it is bound to impact trust relations.
Many communication theorists have studied the relationship between the media and
the masses. Gerbner's Cultivation Hypothesis, for example, states that “heavy viewers are
exposed to more violence and therefore are effected by the Mean World Syndrome, an idea
2
that the world is worse then it actually is.”6 This hypothesis is based on the premise that
consumers have no initial ideas about world happenings and thus, the more television they
watch, the more pessimistic they become – simply because violence dominates television
fare. Alternatively, according to the 'Hypodermic Needle Theory,’ advocated by many post
war communication theories, the mass media has a direct, immediate and powerful impact
on the viewing audience. The media has the capability to influence many people
simultaneously and uses this to its advantages by 'injecting' messages into its audiences
which are instinctively influenced. 7
While these theories look at media-audience relations, they tend to focus on only half
of the equation. Their aim is to explain the media’s impact on the masses. Rarely do they
consider how the masses impact the media itself. As a result, they are unsuitable for
examining the changes in interactivity that is occurring today, and their effect on levels of
trust. To capture these changes requires a more interactive model that allows for shifting
relationships between the media and the viewer.
The most promising line of research in this regard is based on theories that frame an
active audience, rather than a passive one. One such theory is the theory of “Uses and
Gratifications” (U & G). Developed by Blumler and Katz in the 1970s. this was the first
communication theory that characterized audiences as being highly active in seeking
information and gratifying their needs. It claims that one of the primary purposes of the
6 Communication Capstone Spring 2001 Theory Workbook. Kentucky: University of Kentucky, 2001.
Cultivation Theory. 22 Jan. 2008 <http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/cultivation.htm>.
7 Communication Theories. 31 May 2006. Universitat Twente. 31 Jan. 2008
<http://www.tcw.utwente.nl/theorieenoverzicht/>.
3
news media is to 'satisfy' its consumer. Accordingly, the newscaster must seek to strengthen
its trust relationship with consumers by offering news that meets consumer needs. The
theory argues, moreover, that media companies compete not only with other media
companies, but also with other types of gratification needs. As described by Chandler,
“The mass media compete with other sources of gratification [...] a medium's content (e.g.
watching a specific programme), familiarity with a genre within the medium (e.g. watching
soap operas), general exposure to the medium (e.g. watching TV), from the social context in
which it is used (e.g. watching TV with the family).”8 Under such circumstances television
news agencies must cater to an increasingly varied and changing consumer taste, because
consumers will only watch television news if it satisfies their needs.
To understand how increased interactivity might enhance trust as described here, we
can draw upon Horman’s Social Exchange theory. According to Horman, trust is an
exchange (or reciprocal process) that individuals engage in, which comprise specific
interaction patterns. In this relationship, there is an increased equality between the two
parties since both parties receive a form of satisfaction (albeit not always tangible).9 Based on
Horman’s Social Exchange Theory, it could be argued that the trust a consumer has in
television news media is a function of the amount of interactivity the consumer has with the
news. That is to say, the greater the interaction, the greater the trust.
Goldman's Veritistic (or truth-seeking) Theory adds an important variable to our
8 Chandler, Daniel. Why Do People Watch Television? - Uses & Gratifications. UWA. 1994. 22 Jan.
2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/usegrat.html>.
9 Sabatelli, Ronald M. "Social Exchange Theory - Contemporary Concepts." Marriage & Family
Encyclopedia. 2008. Net Industries. 5 Feb. 2008 <http://family.jrank.org/pages/1595/Social-ExchangeTheory-Major-Contemporary-Concepts.html>.
4
understanding of trust in the news—that of “true” beliefs. Veritistic “identifies and
assesses processes, methods or practices in terms of their contributions -- positive or
negative -- to the production of true belief.”10 According to him, “true belief” comes about
not in the face of absolute truths applicable to every consumer, but rather in the course of
each consumer's individual quest for knowledge production and ultimately socially
distributed knowledge.
To summarize, trust in television news is a function of media format and
circumstances. Today, however, trust in television new is on the decline. One must ask,
therefore, whether and how new types of media formats might affect the relationship
between the news media and its viewers. Building on the literature described above and
focusing on the technology of iReporting as it is being used by CNN, this thesis
hypothesizes the following: By generating greater interactivity between its consumers, CNN
stimulates increased trust with its consumers because it gratifies consumer needs and
establishes a healthy reciprocity with its consumers.
iReporting allows the consumer to engage in their own process of news discovery
and message reception. It also allows them to illustrate their ideas on credited news stations
for increased message acceptance.
In facilitating a reciprocal relationship between the news
media an the viewer, iReporting will lead to greater trust in the news. To test this hypothesis,
the thesis proceeds as follows. Chapter two provides a literature review that provides the
basis for conceptualizing the research question and hypothesis. It will include a discussion
10 Goldman, Alvin I. "Social Epistemology." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001. Stanford
University. 5 Feb. 2008 <http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/archives/sum2002/entries/epistemologysocial/#2>.
5
of Social Exchange Theory describing how trust might be formed between consumers and
television news media via increased interactivity. Uses and Gratification theory will also be
examined to determine the relationship between interactivity (reciprocity), trust and
gratification. Veritistic theory will then be employed to explain the relationship between
knowledge production and increased interactivity and participation of consumers with
television news.
Chapter three is an historical chapter. It analyzes and describes the history of
television news media, primarily focusing on its transition from reporting news to reporting
entertainment stories including the use of tabloids and celebrity stories. In this context, the
chapter will lay out the relationship between format, circumstances, and trust in the news
media. .
Chapter four will provide a content analysis of CNN in the years between 1990 –
2008 in order to trace when precisely iReporting was initiated into CNN's method of
reporting and the type of events for which it was used. Second, the chapter will describe the
results of surveys taken among a random sample to determine consumer trust of news,
particularly of the new feature of iReporting on CNN. This analysis of this data will help to
determine what affect iReporting has had on consumers have in the news. To control for
factors other than interactivity, the data will also be analyzed to determine whether
age/gender/or income level plays a role in the trust relationship.
The final chapter concludes with of an overview and analysis of the research findings
in relationship to the hypothesis laid out in chapter one. Based on the analysis is will seek to
explain discrepancies between the hypothesis and the research results. The limitation of the
6
study will be described as well as opportunities for further research.
Chapter Two: Models and Measurements
This thesis aims to determine the impact of iReporting on consumer trust in the
media. As background for analysis, this chapter reviews the theoretical literature on
communications as it pertains to audience relations with the media. In particular, it looks at
Uses and Gratification (U & G) theory as a way of examining how audiences interact with
their television media and how interaction bolsters consumer trust. The chapter then
considers the theory of Social Exchange, which provides a basis for characterizing the
relationship between television news and consumers as a reciprocal one. Building on this
literature, the chapter defines and operationalizes the key terms that are used to model the
relationship between consumers and the television news media. These terms include
interaction iReporting, reciprocity, gratification and consumers and television news media.
The chapter concludes with a model of the relationships among the factors that are entailed
in promoting consumer trust. The model provides a conceptual framework for analyzing
and organizing the chapters that follow.
Literature Review
Many earlier communication theories related to journalism assume that the audience
is a passive actor in a one-way communication relationship. For example, the most extreme
7
case is the Hypodermic Needle Theory developed within the Frankfurt School in the 1930s.
It states that: “the masses are ‘sitting ducks’ who passively absorb all the media material
‘shot’ at them and believe whatever they have been told. The theory gives the audience
virtually no credit for being able to discern truth from fiction. Instead, the media is seen as
substantially shaping the viewers’ lives.”11
Gerbner's Cultivation Hypothesis also ties audience perceptions to the media.
According to this theory, the more television viewers watch, the more the visual media alter
their perceptions. The 'Mean World Syndrome,' as it is called, warps perceptions by
imposing a type of reality that the media wants the public to consume. The journalistic
perspective presented by the Cultivation Hypothesis diminishes consumer agency. It
assumes consumers have no preconceived notions of reality or world views of their own.
Rather the media is conceived as a means of shaping images of the world that audiences
mindlessly consume.12
Bandura's Social Learning Theory is in the same genre. This theory states that,
“researchers and broadcasters seek to influence behavior by providing positive and negative
role models through the media in order to increase audience members' knowledge about an
issue, and ultimately change their attitudes and behavior.”13 Accordingly, messages are used
11
"Summary of Major Media Communication Theories." 8 Feb. 2008
<http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:ld_W_mHXR3AJ:www.sunsmart.com.au/downloads/schools/tatto
o/summary_of_major_media_communication_theories.pdf+communication+theories+passive+audience+c
d=3&gl=us>.
12 Chandler, Daniel. Cultivation Theory. Annenburg School of Communication, UPenn. Livingston, AL:
UWA, 1995. 20 Jan. 2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/cultiv.html>.
13 Pojman, April. Rev. of Artists as Experts: a Participatory Methodology To, by A Deacock.
http://www.yapame.com/artists.pdf 1997.
8
to manipulate consumer behavior and attitudes. Like the aforementioned communication
theories, the Social Learning theory views the audience as being passive, and prone to
thoughtlessly consume and believe what is seen on television, rather than processing and
understanding the information in the context of what they already know.
Even though these theories look at media-audience relationships, they tend to focus
on only half of the equation. Their aim is to explain the media’s impact on the masses.
Rarely do they consider how the masses impact the media itself. As a result, they are
unsuitable for examining the increased interactivity that we are witnessing today. To capture
the impact of interactive changes in media requires a theoretical model that incorporates
two-way interactions between the media and the viewer.
One need only consider how vastly different today’s media landscape is from that of
the 1930s. With the advent of new technologies, there is an influx not only of the
information depicted on television news, but also of the choices among news conduits that
appeal to more specific consumer tastes and diversified interests. Moreover, the advent of
new interactive technologies allows consumers to be much more active than ever before in
not only deciding what kind of news to watch, and when, but also in assessing the quality,
content and sources of news stories. These technologies include webblogging, online
discussion forums, chat rooms dedicated to analyzing and deducing the content and accuracy
of news stories, and the direct submission of photos and videos to major news conduits to
be broadcast on the air
iReporting is one of these new user driven applications. This technology allows the
submission of photos and video feed directly to the cable company CNN to be broadcast
9
nationwide. The iReporting technology and its use by CNN will be the focus of this thesis.
CNN was chosen as a case study because it was the first news station to develop and adopt
the user-driven technological advancement. Other news stations have subsequently followed
suit.
The most promising line of research related to the shift from passive to active
television consumers is Katz's theory of “Uses and Gratifications” (U & G). Developed in
the 1950s as a critical response to the Hypodermic Needle Theory of Communication, U &
G Theory contends that “audience members are active participants in media communication
and use it to gratify their own needs and purposes.”14 It argues that the media has limited
power over the consumer, in that consumers have agency and discretionary power in
deciding whether or not to 'buy in' to the media's message. The theory argues, moreover,
that media companies compete not only with other media companies, but also with other
types of gratification available to meet consumer needs.
To make his case, Katz conducted empirical studies to determine why consumers
watch television. The results showed four main categories of television viewing:
information, personal identity, entertainment and integration/social interaction. Katz’s
analyses revealed that “audience needs have social and psychological origins which generate
certain expectations about the mass media, leading to differential patterns of media exposure
which result in both the gratification of needs [...] assume an active audience making
14
"Summary of Major Media Communication Theories." 8 Feb. 2008
<http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:ld_W_mHXR3AJ:www.sunsmart.com.au/downloads/schools/tatto
o/summary_of_major_media_communication_theories.pdf+communication+theories+passive+audience&h
l=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=us>.
10
motivated choices.”15 While the goal of obtaining information, entertainment and social
interaction are clearly important, they are beyond the scope of analysis. The scope of this
thesis is confined to the formation of trust in the television news medium.
Expanding on the work of Blumler and Katz, James Lull created relational criteria
for describing the Social Uses of Television. These include: communication facilitation,
affiliation, social learning and competence. Of these, the notion of ‘social learning’ is the
most important for the question that this thesis raises. Social Learning helps to explain how
new technologies affect the reinforcement (or detraction) from social interaction, which
leads to social learning. For example, models of Social Learning propose that consumers
engage more actively with their television news medium when they have enhanced decisionmaking abilities, problem-solving attributes, and the news medium serves to legitimize
information, beliefs and/or ideas that the consuming public already knows or has. The
reinforcement role of the news media affords consumers enhanced agency to transmit values
in a coherent manner and disseminate information.16
While the concept of social learning is useful in determining how consumers engage
with new interactive technologies, it does not elucidate the trust relationship that exists
between the news medium and the consumer. For this purpose, we can turn to the U & G
and Social Exchange Theories. Let’s begin with Horman's Theory of Social Exchange.
Horman’s theory of Social Exchange seeks to answer the question: why do people
trust? According to this theory, individuals engage in social exchange because both parties
15 Chandler, Daniel. Why Do People Watch Television? - Uses & Gratifications. UWA. 1994. 22 Jan.
2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/usegrat.html>.
16 Ibid.
11
receive something (tangible or not) in exchange for entering into the relationship. Trust is
thus defined as a reciprocal relationship of “social exchange [that] involves a series of
interactions that generate obligations.”17
The theory, as it relates to trust, views reciprocity as a norm, obligating people who
engage in interactive communications to act in a reciprocal manner. 18 As Milan Zafirovski
notes, “if reciprocity is not observed, such transactions [interactions] will tend to eventually
discontinue.”19
Trust relationships enhance the sense of equality between the two parties because
both parties receive a form of satisfaction (albeit not always tangible).20 Horman’s Social
Exchange Theory suggests that the trust a consumer has in television news media is a
function of the amount of interactivity the consumer has with the news. That is to say, the
greater the interaction, the greater the trust.
Social interaction is also central to understanding how Horman’s theory can be
connected to the U & G theory. Just as social interaction allows for trust, so too increased
interaction between the consumer and the news media leads to increased social learning (or
truth-seeking). Increased social learning then leads to increased gratification of needs, which
results in increased trust. Increased need gratification is contingent upon the existence of an
17 Cropanzano, Russell, and Marie S. Mitchell. "Social Exchange Theory: an Interdisciplinary Review."
Journal of Management 31 (2005). SagePub. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 11 Feb. 2008.
Keyword: Trust reciprocity.
18 Ibid.
19 Zafirovski, Milan. "Some Amendments to Social Exchange Theory: a Sociological Perspective."
Theory & Science 4 (2003). 11 Feb. 2008
<http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol004.002/01_zafirovski.html>.
20 Sabatelli, Ronald M. "Social Exchange Theory - Contemporary Concepts." Marriage & Family
Encyclopedia. 2008. Net Industries. 5 Feb. 2008 <http://family.jrank.org/pages/1595/Social-ExchangeTheory-Major-Contemporary-Concepts.html>.
12
established reciprocal relationship between the news medium and the consumer, which is
defined in this context as both parties receiving sufficient gratification of needs.
Goldman's Veritistic (or knowledge production) theory adds an important variable
to our understanding of trust in the news—that of “true” beliefs. Veritistic identifies and
assesses processes, methods or practices in terms of their contributions -- positive or
negative -- to the production of true belief.”21 According to him, “true belief” comes about
not in the face of absolute truths applicable to every consumer, but rather in the course of
each consumer's individual quest for knowledge production and ultimately socially
distributed knowledge. The “truth-seeking” theory outlines the four processes associated
with knowledge production: discovery, production and transmission of messages; message
reception, and message acceptance.22
The process of “knowledge production”, as outlined by Goldman, helps to describe
the process of iReporting. A news story is discovered by the consumer and is videotaped
with a mobile or hand held device. It is then sent to CNN, where its messages are
transmitted on national news. Audience members view it and begin to process the
information they have just seen. And finally, audience members decide whether they believe
the story to be trustworthy, based on the level of interaction the consumer has with that
particular news station (which then determines the level of trust the consumer has in a
particular news station) and whether a specific story portrays a message that the consumer
21 Goldman, Alvin I. "Social Epistemology." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001. Stanford
University. 5 Feb. 2008 <http://www.science.uva.nl/~seop/archives/sum2002/entries/epistemologysocial/#2>.
22 Ibid.
13
previously believed.
Considered together, these three theories provide a basis for understanding how
technology affects levels of trust between news media and their audiences. In particular, it
allows us to frame our query about the relationship between iReporting and consumer trust
in CNN as a television news medium? Building on the theories of User Gratification,
Reinforcement, Social Exchange and Knowledge Production, we can derive the following
hypothesis: iReporting allows consumers to engage in their own process of
news discovery and message reception. It also allows them to illustrate their
ideas on credited news stations for increased message acceptance. In
facilitating a reciprocal trust relationship (via increased interaction) between
the news media and the viewer, iReporting will lead to greater trust in CNN.
Key Terms
To test this hypothesis, a number of key terms must be defined and operationalized.
These include iReporting, consumer, consumer agency, gratification, reinforcement, trust,
reciprocity, social veritistic, and social interaction.
iReporting
iReporting is a technological application that is specific to CNN. Being user-based, it
allows consumers worldwide to submit pictures and video to CNN from their own towns
and neighborhoods However, iReporting does include other features such as posting
stories to CNN's website or citizen political analyses and projections for the 2008
Presidential Election. Hence, this thesis will focus on the video footage and photographs
14
sent in by consumers and distributed on CNN's television media.23 For the purposes of this
thesis, iReporting will thus be defined as 'a user-based technology that allows for increased
interaction between consumers and CNN. It includes, but is not limited to, consumers
sending video-feeds and photos of news stories worldwide into CNN for mass distribution.'
Consumer
As defined by Webster's Dictionary, a consumer is “one that utilizes economic
goods.” This definition serves for the purpose of analysis, because it is broad enough to
encompass a wide range of actors, making it possible to identify the range, diversity and
complexity of the trust relationships between consumers and the news media.24
Consumer Agency
Traditional communication theory defines agency as the ability or state of exerting
power. However, for the purposes of this research, agency will be defined as consumer
freedom—that is to say, “the absence of necessity, coercion or constraint in [consumer]
choice and/or action.”25 The above definition parallels the definition of a reciprocal
relationship and provides a foundation for describing how the consumer enters into a
reciprocal relationship with the news media. If the consumer has no fear of coercion and is
free to choose which/where/if he/she wants to watch television news media, the consumer
will be more likely to engage in a two-way relationship. The outlined definition also differs
from previous conceptions of audience behavior, according to which consumers are more
constrained in their choices of television news, a fact that reflects the lack of available
23 "I-Report Topics." CNN.Com. 2008. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.cnn.com/exchange/ireports/topics/>.
24 Merriam-Webster. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consumer>.
25 Merriam-Webster. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/freedom>.
15
television news outlets, other outlets for information, and general knowledge about world
happenings.
Gratification
In the context of the U & G Theory, gratification is a psychological effect that
consumers experience and from which they subsequently derive satisfaction. As it relates to
this thesis, gratification is associated with reciprocal relationships between consumers and
the news media, which serve to meet and satisfy specific consumer needs in ways that are
otherwise unavailable. By satisfying consumer needs, reciprocal relations bolster trust and
consumers’ confidence that their time was well spent. The process is mutually reinforcing
insofar as trust leads to greater increased consumer interactivity, which in turn leads to
greater consumer trust.
It is important to note that watching television is not always gratifying. If television
does not sufficiently serve consumer needs, the two-way relationship breaks down because
the news medium has not lived up to its end of the reciprocal bargain with the consumer.
As a result, the consumer will search elsewhere for a different news conduit or other
knowledge-seeking means to gratify his or her needs.
Trust
Merriam-Webster defines trust in the following manner: “a charge or duty imposed
in faith or confidence or as a condition of some relationship.”26 This definition is the most
fitting for this paper, because it conceives of trust in terms of a relationship. There is also a
sense of obligation associated with the above definition of trust, insofar as it implies an equal
26 Merriam-Webster. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trust>.
16
or reciprocal charge to both parties entailed in the relationship so both parties benefit. The
only component that is missing from this definition of trust is consumer gratification. The
notion of consumer need gratification is also needed as a part of the trust definition to
strengthen the relationship between the two entities.
Thus, in keeping with these theories, as well as the substance of this thesis, trust can
be defined as the result of a reciprocal relationship between the news media and the
consumer. Such a relation leads, in turn, to the sufficient gratification of needs, which gives
rise to increased interaction between consumers and news media. The increase in interaction
signifies the gratification of need, which enhances trust.
Reciprocity
Reciprocity is generally defined as a relationship between people involving the
exchange of goods, services, favors, or obligations, especially a mutual exchange of
privileges.”27 The above definition corresponds to the notion in Social Exchange Theory of
a reciprocal relationship between two individuals. As such, it encompasses the idea of
mutual gain of both parties involved in the exchange that results from equal efforts by both
parties to meet specific needs of the other. When both parties are gratified, or satisfied, with
the relationship, a successful reciprocal relationship has been established.
Social Exchange Theory identifies several different types of reciprocity that can exist
within relationships. The type of reciprocity highlighted in this thesis is group gain reciprocity,
which occurs when the benefits of a reciprocal relationship are placed in a common pool.
27 "Reciprocity." Encarta. 11 Feb. 2008
<http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861699702/reciprocity.html>.
17
Individuals then take what they need from the common pool and contribute back where and
when it is possible.28
The above definition of reciprocity is suitable for a study that examines the nature of
the relationship between consumers and the mass media. It characterizes how each
individual consumer makes a contribution by continuing to watch the same station for
television news. At the same time the news media maintains simultaneous trust relationships
with thousands of individuals worldwide and these individuals, depending on their level of
gratification, contribute (or interact) more with that specific news media. The term “group
gain reciprocity” captures these relationships, as it addresses the group dynamics of
reciprocity between consumers and the mass media as well as each individual interaction.
Social Veritistic
According to Alvin Goldman, the veritstic is used in conjunction with knowledge
production and processing. The theory characterizes “how social practices [interactions],
including information production, can and do contribute to true belief.”29 Goldman defines
'true belief' as “knowledge,” or more specifically, the curiosity to “know the truth [...] what
really happened, not simply what is generally believed.”30
The Social Veritistic theory is highly germane to the discussion of new technologies
and their effects on trust relationships. When consumers engage in information production
28 Cropanzano, Russell, and Marie S. Mitchell. "Social Exchange Theory: an Interdisciplinary Review."
Journal of Management 31 (2005). SagePub. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 11 Feb. 2008.
Keyword: Trust reciprocity.
29 Budd, John M. "A Social Epistemology Framework." Journal of Academic Librarianship 30 (2004):
361-367. Academic Libraries & Knowledge. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 12 Feb. 2008.
30 Goldman, Alvin I. "Education & Social Epistemology." Philosophy of Education (1995). 12 Feb. 2008
<http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/95_docs/goldman.html>.
18
and do so to contribute to the general pool of knowledge, two things occur. First, their
activities fulfill the reciprocal dynamic of a group gain relationship, because some (albeit not
all) consumers are giving back to the pool of benefits they utilize. Secondly, when engaged
in information production, consumers increase their agency as well as their interaction with
the television news media. Therefore, by adding the Veritistic into the equation, one can see
how consumers bolster existing reciprocity between themselves and the news media, while
contributing back to the general pool of knowledge. The subsequent proliferation of
information, discussion and consumer interaction with the television news media results in
increased trust between both parties.
Social Interaction
Interaction is defined as “mutual action or influence [between two parties].”31 For
the purpose of this thesis, the key idea is that the action on both sides is mutual, so that both
sides gain from the interaction, albeit not in the same way. The social interaction
need not be between two people; it can also occur between two parties. Accordingly, it
covers the one to many relationships that exist between the news media and consumers.
Increased social interaction leads to greater Social Learning. Social learning has been
defined as the observation and imitation of others' behavior.32 However, for the purposes
of this thesis, with its focus on interaction, social learning will be said to result not only from
imitation but also from the interaction between individuals and the exchange of social
practices and knowledge. Accordingly, social learning is related to personal beliefs and
31 Merriam-Webster. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interaction>.
32 "Social Learning." Business Dictionary. 12 Feb. 2008
<http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/social-learning.html>.
19
curiosities about truth and truth-seeking. It can take place not only as a result of interactions
among people, but also between people and institutions, such as television media.
Modeling the Relationship Between Consumers and the Media
Building upon the theoretical literature and the key variables identified therein, it is
possible to model the media-audience relationship. The model provides a basis for the
hypothesis presented in this thesis as well as the analytical framework used to assess it.
As we have seen, according to Social Exchange Theory, trust is contingent upon a
reciprocal relationship that ties news media and consumers together so that both parties
stand to gain from utilizing the others' resources. As regards the media and its audience, we
have argued that the news media gain ratings and loyalty from consumers by sufficiently
gratifying their needs. In exchange, consumers gain gratification and increased agency by
interacting with news media. When both sides are satisfied, a healthy reciprocity is
produced, and trust is increased between the consumer and the news media. The
relationship between the media and the audience can thus be modeled as follows:
Independent variable
iReporting as
increased
consumer
interaction
Intervening Variables
Reciprocal
relationship
between consumer
and news media
Dependent Variable
Increased
consumer
gratification
Increased
consumer trust
of television
news
Likewise, we can argue that if the relationship is not reciprocal in nature, consumer needs
will be inadequately met, leading to a decrease in consumer interaction with the news media,
20
causing a decrease in consumer trust of news media. In other words, a non-reciprocal
relationship --> no gratification of consumer needs --> status quo consumer agency -->
decreased consumer interest --> decreased consumer interaction --> decreased consumer
trust.
We can also factor in the key variables in Goldman's Veritistic Theory. When
consumers have increased agency in knowledge production, they will demonstrate greater
curiosity about truth and invest more in knowledge production techniques. As a result, the
consumer will create knowledge to be displayed around the world. Consumer behavior of
knowledge creation constitutes a form of interaction between the news media and the
consumer. The increase in knowledge production techniques will leads to increased
interaction, which as stated above, leads to increased consumer trust. Accordingly, increased
consumer agency --> increased consumer curiosity --> increased consumer knowledgeseeking behavior --> increased knowledge production as a form of interaction between both
parties --> increased consumer trust.
To summarize, a successful reciprocal relationship between news media and the
consumer leads to the news media's sufficient gratification of consumer needs. Sufficient
gratification of consumer needs leads to increased consumer agency. Rising consumer
agency leads to increased consumer curiosity. Growth in consumer curiosity leads to
increased consumer knowledge-seeking behavior. A rise in consumer knowledge-seeking
behavior leads to increased knowledge production, fulfilling the exchange benefit of the
group dynamic in the theory of reciprocity. Increased knowledge production is a form of
increased interaction between the consumer and the news media, which results in increased
21
consumer trust in the news media. The model can be restated as follows:
Successful reciprocal relationship between news media and the consumer -->
news media's sufficient gratification of consumer needs --> increased
consumer agency --> increased consumer curiosity --> increased consumer
knowledge-seeking behavior --> increased knowledge production -->
increased interaction between the consumer and the news media -->
increased consumer trust.
Measuring the Variables
The above model identifies a number of variables that must be measured in order to
determine the relationship between interactivity (iReporting) and the generation of consumer
trust. The independent variable is increased consumer interaction in the form of the userdriven technology called iReporting. iReporting will be measured by the level of consumer
interaction with the news media. The measure of consumer interaction serves as an
indicator of the level of interaction between consumers and the television news media. As
applied to the case of iReporting in particular, the level of participation will be considered to
be higher to the extent that iReporting constitutes a larger share of new reports than
traditional newscasts. If the number of iReports submitted to CNN is greater than the
number of reports produced by CNN, then the level of consumer interaction with CNN will
be considered high. The number of iReports, coupled with the credibility of iReporting,
indicates a high level of trust in iReporting. The lower the number of iReports in
comparison to the news produced by CNN, the lower the level of consumer interaction.
The resulting percentage, coupled with the credibility of iReporting, indicates a low level of
trust in iReporting.
22
The first intervening variable that must be measured is the gratification of consumer
needs. To measure gratification, we look at a repeatability measure. If consumers turn to the
same news station repeatedly, it can be deduced that consumers trust this particular news
station, as reflected in their consistent gratification of needs. This repeatability measure is
based on the assumption that consumer agency allows for disloyalty to a particular news
station in order to sufficiently gratify consumer needs. Thus, if a consumer chooses to stay
with a particular news station, we can deduce that his/her needs are sufficiently being
gratified by this news station, strengthening the two-way relationship between consumers
and the television news media. Sufficient gratification of consumer needs increases
interactivity between the two parties and ultimately increases consumer trust.
Television ratings released annually indicate the number of viewers that watch the
television newscast. According to TV Week, high repeatability of a network's programming
indicates strong ratings performances from that network.33 Ratings can thus be quantified
as a measure of consumer gratification. Consumers find the news station (or aspects of the
news on a particular news station) gratifying, indicating that consumers will continue to
watch the news on this particular station because it satisfies their specific needs.
The measure for reciprocity between consumers and the news medium will use not
only the repeatability measure of viewership ratings (following the same assumption) but also
an additional measure not addressed by the gratification variable. The reciprocal relationship
can also be quantified by examining the amount of funding and on-air time devoted to the
33 Greppi, Michele. "Moonves Sees End to Strike in ‘Next Few Months’." TV Week 10 Jan. 2008. 12 Feb.
2008 <http://www.tvweek.com/news/2008/01/moonves_sees_end_to_strike_in.php>.
23
two-way interaction between consumers and the news medium.
Viewership ratings show a reciprocal relationship, because consumer needs are being
sufficiently gratified and consumers are giving back to the relationship loop by expressing
their loyalty to particular stations via increased viewership ratings. The increased effort
made by television news outlets elucidates the amount of effort news stations put into the
gratification of its consumers’ needs. The effort news stations put forth into the relationship
with consumers re-emphasizes the reciprocal nature of the relationship. In this context,
'effort' is the amount of air-time set aside for viewer feedback and resources invested for
user-based technologies, news stations put into the relationship with their viewers, the more
viewers reciprocate with increased viewership ratings for that particular news station.
The dependent variable in our analysis is the measurement of trust. Trust is
extremely difficult to measure without a given context, as it is highly subjective . This thesis
measures trust in terms of credibility. Previously, credibility was irrelevant because
consumers had no other outlet for information and nothing else to believe.
However, because of the existence of two-way relationships, interactions between
the television news and consumers have become increasingly complex. As a result,
determining the credibility of news is even more difficult. “With a quantity of
communicators, it is often impossible to rate the competence or credibility of a source or the
author of a message – there are simply too many to identify them all.”34 The receptor's
competence and the social circumstances, or environment, consumers find themselves in
34 Schweiger, Wolfgang. "Media Credibility --Experience or Image?" European Journal of
Communication 15 (2000). Sage Publications. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 12 Feb. 2008.
24
typically determine credibility.
Credibility can be further broken down into three subcategories: quality credibility,
content credibility and source credibility. These three categories are discussed below.
One category of credibility is Timothy Grayson's measure of quality as an indicator
for trust within a digital framework. Quality of news is essential as an aspect of trust, in that
higher quality news leads to increased consumer need gratification. In this thesis, quality will
be assessed based on the presentation and comprehensibility of the news story vs. the
presentation and comprehensibility of the iReport. The quality of news currently covered in
news media must be weighed against the quality of news that iReporting brings. “The trust
framework that will increase the quality and acceptability of transactional value [...] is a key
requirement for expanding relations and [...] propagating trust.”35 By measuring the quality
of news, the credibility measure also becomes quantifiable and more useful in determining
whether the iReport or conventional news offers the consumer better need gratification.
Ed Gerck provides a means of measuring content in a digital setting. He states that
“content may have different meanings and different layers of understanding [...] content must be
conveyed at different layers as well.”36 The content of the news story is important because it
sparks increased need gratification, knowledge-seeking behavior and interaction, eventually
leading to increased consumer trust (see the above model). In this thesis, content includes the
variety of traditional news stories and topics vs. the variety of video and photo feeds sent in
by consumers to news outlets. The thesis will compare satisfaction derived from traditional
35 Grayson, Timothy. "Toward a Digital Trust Framework." Introduction. Toward a Digital Trust
Framework. By Timothy Grayson. 2003. 12 Feb. 2008.
36 Greck, Ed. Trust as Qualified Reliance on Information. COOK Network Consultants. 2002.
25
news in contrast with iReports.
Finally, source is an important determinant of credibility of news due to the advent of
new technologies and increased consumer agency in the news. The advent of increased
consumer agency is a recent phenomenon and has become highly important with the
inception of iReporting and citizen journalism. “Source credibility can be measured by
examining how different individuals, groups and organizations influence the processing of
messages.”37 In other words, how does the meaning and acceptance of the message change
due to the message's origination? In this context, source will be defined as knowledge
production from consumers vs. reporters, or iReports vs. traditional news.
By examining the above variables in terms of the model presented above, we can
assess how iReporting affects consumer trust of television news. The variables of
iReporting/interaction, reciprocity, consumer gratification and consumer trust (in that order)
will be examined by first, performing a content analysis of CNN, focusing specifically on
interaction between consumers and the television news media. Second, we will gather
statistics of funding for new technologies and amount of time invested in on-the-air for
viewer feedback. Third, we will analyze Nielsen (viewership) ratings during the years before,
during and after iReporting to see its affect on consumer ratings. Fourth, we will examine
the quality, source and content of iReporting vs. traditional news via a survey methodology
distributed to a random sample to assess the levels of consumer trust in traditional news vs.
consumer-created news.
37 Kiousis, Spiro. "Public Trust or Mistrust? Perceptions of Media Credibility in the Information Age."
Mass Communication & Society 4 (2001): 381-403. JSTOR. Iowa State University, Washington DC. 12
Feb. 2008.
26
As controls for this experiment, we have included the age, gender and income levels
of the people surveyed. These control measures will determine whether/if these
demographic indicators have an effect on the level of consumer trust in television news.
Chapter Three: The History of Television in terms of the outlined variables
The One Way Relationship
From the inception of television in 1927, the relationship between consumers and
the medium has been a passive one. During this period, television was only in its natal
stages, and radio was a well established competitor. Consumer needs for information were
being sufficiently gratified by radio news and its coverage of World War II. As a result,
television was not very popular as a medium nor did it spark peoples' interests.
Reporting during wartime had an important impact not only on the media itself, but
also on how communication scholars conceived of the relationship between the media and
its audience. The Hypodermic Needle Theory reflected the audience passivity that was
associated with war time reporting. Germany and other countries involved in World War II
utilized the airwaves, particularly radio and television, to send messages to the masses about
the progress of the war, including victories and defeats. They also sent messages via radio
and television in order to flame public patriotism and support for the troops. Consumers
27
processed these messages without questioning them and acted upon them without
questioning their repercussions. Scholars having observed these developments, built the
Hypodermic Need theory around them.38
The limited one-way relationship between consumers and television characterized
the news medium until the beginning of 1949, when commercial television shifted its focus
to entertainment. Television stations were eager to offer entertainment because the market
seemed promising and consumer needs for information were being satisfied by radio
elsewhere. As a result, the three main broadcast stations – ABC, CBS, NBC – began to air
shows revolving around theater. Shows like the “Texaco Star Theater” and the “Jack Benny
Show” began attracting consumers to the new television medium.39 Entertainment fare
served as a distraction from the hardships abroad and an escape from the 'real-world.'
Although television also launched short newscasts to summarize current events and world
occurrences, these newscasts were extremely short in length, taking about as much time as
one of today’s commercial advertisements. The purpose of commercials was to suspend the
action of the television drama and provide additional information, particularly in the form of
pictures, which were unavailable on radio.
As stated in the previous chapter, social circumstances played a crucial role in the
development of the two-way relationship between consumers and the television media. In
the early 1950s, McCarthyism took hold of the United States and it was then that televisions
first began to extend its venue beyond entertainment. The inspiration stemmed from a
38 Baker, Michael J. "Hypodermic Needle Theory." Westburn Dictionary of Marketing. 11 Mar. 2008
<http://www.parkcaledonia.biz/marketing-dictionary/h/hypodermic-needle-model.aspx>.
39 Ibid.
28
documentary instigated by Edward Murrow and entitled “See it Now.”
“See it Now” aimed to expose Senator McCarthy and his tactics in promoting the
fear of UnAmericanism. Murrow criticized Senator McCarthy for “confusing dissent with
disloyalty.”40 “See it Now” was a milestone in television history, because it was the first
time that debate and dissent was introduced into a public television arena. The show was so
popular it was awarded four Emmys for Best News/Public Service Program.41 McCarthy’s
appearance on this show demonstrated that Murrow had not only been successful in
revealing McCarthy's hidden agenda; he had also satisfied a set of consumer needs that radio
had previously not met.
The Two-Way Relationship
Murrow’s public forum for dissent inaugurated interactivity between consumers and
the television news media. Murrow fueled public opinion at a time when the “reign of fear”
created by McCarthy had dominated the media. Murrow spoke 'for the people' and in so
doing, created a two-way dialog between the television news format and consumers.
Subsequently, consumers felt empowered to speak out as well, ending McCarthyism in the
United States.
Not surprisingly, by the mid-1950s, television had become commonplace, albeit not
ubiquitous. Over half the American population owned televisions, while the other half
either could not afford one or found adequate satisfaction deriving entertainment and
information from radio. Thanks to television dramas such as ‘I Love Lucy,” consumer
40 Ibid.
41 See It Now. CBS. 27 Feb. 2008
<http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/M/htmlM/murrowedwar/murrowedwar.htm>.
29
gratification was at its height and ratings soared. It was television’s “Golden Age,” as
television began gratifying new types of consumer needs, and consumers, in turn, showed
their appreciation with higher viewership ratings.
Another development that strengthened the two-way relationship between television
and consumers was the advent of game shows.42 In game shows, consumers can play
along from the comfort of their own homes, share in the celebration of contestants’ cash
prises as well as relish in their shortcomings, relieved by the knowledge that the viewer was
not in the same situation or that, had he been, he would have known the answer. According
to Stuart Fischoff:
"A lot of people think the only chance they have of getting rich is through a lottery
ticket, and now you have game shows, where you can get rich because you have a
good knowledge of trivia. As the chasm between the haves and the have-nots
increases, so will people's interest in these shows."43
The two-way relationship between consumers and television news was further
enhanced by the political charges of the late 1950s. The number of newscasts substantially
increased as revitalized the country's political interest as evidenced by the million television
viewers that watched the televised debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon.
Those who listened via radio thought Nixon had won the debate, while those who viewed
the candidates on television determined JFK as the victor.
The election of 1960 was not only a victory for JFK, but also for the television news
medium. people gave more credibility to the visual medium, because they could examine the
42 Stephens, Mitchell. "History of Television." Grolier Encyclopedia. 1996. 27 Feb. 2008
<http://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm>.
43 Ebenkamp, Becky. "We'Re Playing for Keeps - Popularity of Game Shows." Brandweek (2000). 11
Mar. 2008 <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BDW/is_19_41/ai_62168426/pg_1>.
30
candidates’ demeanor and response to pressure in a face-to-face situations. Although Nixon
may have spoken more eloquently during the debate, JFK clearly presented himself elegantly
and calmly, clearly answering the questions without faltering in its body language. The fact
that JFK later won the election is extremely telling of the increased importance of television
not only for consumer gratification, but also in the shaping of political elections and
outcomes.
In 1961, the news coverage of Kennedy’s tragic assassination also served to bolster
nationwide viewership. As the country tuned in to mourn its recently elected president,
citizens came together in an unprecedented way. The assassination stirred passions and
activity among democrats and republicans alike, One result was increases interactivity with
the television news media, as angry citizens would bore witness about their outrage and
sadness regarding the tragic event. For the first time, television served to bridge the
polarization between the two parties and bring both underneath one banner of “American.”
The Vietnam War solidified television’s position as the primary source of news. In
contrast to the sparse war coverage of World War II, the coverage of the Vietnam was
extensive. In fact, some observers complain that visual images made available by television
were responsible for the harsh picture painted of the war and the subsequent flood of
protests against the war and war policies. These pictures served to engage television
audiences. Consumers became more proactive in their opposition, to the war, sending in
letters of dissent to congressmen and popular television personalities. This increased
engagement demonstrates that consumers felt that they had enough agency to interact with
the medium, which was a huge step towards strengthening the reciprocal nature of the
31
relationship between television news media and consumers.
The television news media could not sit on its laurels, however. In 1980, cable news
stations emerged as effective competitors to the local television news outlets. The
proliferation of cable television news resulted in a much greater variety of consumer choices.
No longer confined to one or two stations for their information, but explore where and how
to gratify their needs as well as receive different perspectives and ideas.
These new stations specialized in their fare, devoting themselves solely to
entertainment or news. Consumers had a variety of ways to consume video programming
and achieve gratification as a result. With so much choice, consumers’ traditional
relationship with TV news outlets began to change.
Although consumers did not abandon the previous relationships with particular news
outlets. They formulated new relationships with various cable news outlets, which—in light
of the growing competition—also had to work hard to maintain consumer relations.
In the face of growing competition and the media’s desire to provide greater outlets
for interaction, all news outlets began to become more innovative in utilizing new userdriven technologies such as iReporting. Such technologies aimed to allow consumers to be
more proactive in not only assessing current news, but also in producing news content that
gratified their own needs. By using these technologies, consumers could interact more
extensively with the medium and increase their trust the news as a result.
To determine the validity of this scenario ,we need to look more closely at the
variables identified in chapter two, and at how they evolved in an historical context.
Variables in a Historical Context
32
Gratification
Originally, television sought to gratify consumers’ needs by providing entertainment
rather than news and information. During the 1930s and 40s, for example, television
executives realized that they needed to employ the media to address consumer needs other
than information. Sitcoms, soap operas and televised award shows became wildly popular.
In an age of confusion about the future, consumers found solace in the whimsical nature of
television and escaped to a more jovial time and situation, albeit if only for thirty to forty
minutes each episode.44
Television and radio news were distinct with respect to how much interactivity they
afforded. With radio, consumers received information, but they had to process the news on
their own, and they were not involved in its production. Television offered consumers the
ability to fantasize about situations, living vicariously through characters portrayed on a
screen in front of them. Because of the power of the pictures, consumers began to engage
more with television than with radio, which had no commensurate technology.45
The increase in consumer engagement with the television news medium illustrates
the importance of interactivity in the gratification of consumer needs. Increased gratification
led to consumers becoming more active in the relationship they had with the television
news media. This increase in consumer agency served induced greater consumer
involvement in television media, which allowed consumers to further build their trust of the
44 White, Mimi. "History and Television." Museum of Broadcast Communications. 12 Mar. 2008
<http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/H/htmlH/historyandt/historyandt.htm>.
45 Stephens, Mitchell. "History of Television." Grolier Encyclopedia. 1996. 27 Feb. 2008
<http://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm>.
33
television news media.
Television offered consumers the opportunity to be involved with the television
news media in several different ways. One example of consumer participation with the
television news media was direct participation via on-air polls and interactive discussions
with other viewers and professional commentators. Another example of consumer
participation with the news media was indirect; consumers engaged through vicarious
experiences of television characters and situations.
The distinction between forms of consumer participation with the television news
media clearly shows that need gratification alone is simply not enough; interaction is a
necessary component of the process of trust establishment. When coupled with need
gratification, interaction, creates a successful two-way communication relationship for
increased trust in the news media.
Television news ventured further into increased forms of need gratification by
offering more outlets for entertainment and information seeking. As a result, consumers
began shifting to television to meet more of their needs. Television became the preferred
source of entertainment and information, as viewers could lose themselves in sitcoms and
subsequently, be brought back to reality by images of current situations abroad and at home.
Consumers began developing multiple reciprocal relationships simultaneously with
different stations. Each station offered the consumer a different form of need gratification
and in return, consumers showed their loyalty by increasing interaction with these channels
34
with increased viewership of the channels that met their needs.46
The inception of cable television was important for several reasons. Not only did it
allow consumers outlets for all or most of their need gratification, but it also cemented
television as the main source-the one-stop-shop—for need gratification for consumers..
Any consumer need could be adequately met by television consumption. Moreover,
television now offered consumers a whole range of options that they never had before. This
greater choice led to variations in the ratings.
The intense competition that resulted from the onset of cable news outlets and the
increase of consumer choice meant that television stations had to work much harder to gain
consumer interest. To keep audiences engaged, television executives began investing more
funds into new interactive technologies. They also set aside more time on-the-air for
audience Q & A and feedback.47 Viewers had more power than ever, as their attention was
now being sought after by any means necessary. Stations competed to outwit the other to
better serve consumer needs, creating a competitive media landscape for the effective
gratification of consumer needs.
Reciprocity
Historically, the reciprocity between consumers and the television news media began
from an executive decision to use television to fulfill entertainment needs of the consumer.
Viewers found a solace in the entertainment value of television and, as a result, they began
46 McDonald, Daniel G., and Stephen D. Reese. "Television News and Audience Selectivity." Journalism
Quarterly (1985): 763-768.
47 Parker, Elliott. Interactivity & Choice. AEJMC/TV Outreach, 10 Feb. 1996, Central Michigan
University. 12 Mar. 2008 <http://list.msu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9602B&L=aejmc&P=2555>.
35
switching to this forum to fulfill the need of entertainment.48
The switch consumers made from radio to television demonstrates the first traces of
reciprocity between consumers and the television news media. Consumers’ needs were met
by television with a different type of programming that centered around consumer emotion
over consumer logic.
Consumers began to give more to their relationship with the television media by
remaining loyal to stations that met their particular needs. The consistency in consumer
loyalty is seen in the repeatability measure of Nielsen Ratings.
The popularity of television shows is one measurement of need gratification.
Nielsen Ratings illustrate that consumers are contributing to their relationship with the
television news media by offering consistency in their viewership. It also illustrates that the
television news media is sufficiently gratifying consumer needs in eliciting a response of
consistent viewership from the consumer in return for their need gratification. According to
Metrovic:
However, as has been said, "interaction" in the sociological sense of the word
requires reciprocal actions of the two participants, i.e. can be defined as such only if
the second participant also understands it in such a way that his/her actions
complement the partner's and help achieve a common goal.”49
The nature of television technology inherently gave more to the relationship with its
48 McDonald, Daniel G., and Stephen D. Reese. "Television News and Audience Selectivity." Journalism
Quarterly (1985): 763-768.
49
Mitrovic, Ivica, and Mirko Petric. "Interaction" in a "Hybrid Society": a Terminological. Diss.
Arts Academy Univ. of Split. 18 Mar. 2008
<http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:JIgCIvJZeNQJ:www2.informatik.huberlin.de/~lindeman/masho01_contributions/tommitpet.pdf+reciprocal+relationship+interactivity&hl=en&
ct=clnk&cd=17&gl=us>.
36
consumers. Consumers felt a deeper connection to the television news media because the
television was visually showing the consumer different situations, events and characters.
Consumers no longer had to imagine what was happening abroad, but could see the images
in front of them. The power of these images helped to cement a more equality between the
two parties. Television news outlets gave the consumer not only more entertainment and
information, but also opportunities for involvement with the medium itself.50
According to Johnathan Goldstein, “Visual footage is an integral part of a good news
service. It tells the viewer as much as the newsreader can with language alone and despite
Postman's claim that photographs record the world without commenting upon it,
contextualized pictures tell us a great deal.”51 The element of contextualized photos
solidifies a more powerful emotional connection between the consumer and the television
news media. For the first time, consumers could see the atrocities of war and feel the courage
and bravery of soldiers.
The power of television images is clearly evident in the 1960 televised debate
between John F Kennedy and Richard Nixon. The fact that JFK won this debate and the
following election is not only a victory for Democrats, but is also a testament to the
importance of pictures and video. Citizens now had the ability to physically see the
candidates reactions to difficult questions and citizen concerns, foreshadowing their abilities
as the future president of he United States.
Increased choices for need gratification increased consumer interaction with the
50 Goldstein, Johnathan. Neil Postman's Criticisms of the Television Medium. London: MCS, 1993. 13
Mar. 2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/jog9901.html>.
51 Ibid.
37
television news media. Features of the newscast such as consumer Q & A, viewer feedback
and airtime devoted to consumer commentary, fostered further opportunity for consumers
to interact with the television news media. As a result of the increased opportunities for
interaction, consumers became more involved with the television news media, strengthening
not only the reciprocity between the two, but also the transparency and accountability of the
television news outlet itself.
The increase in consumer interaction with the television news media changed the
very format of the newscast as well. On-air time for consumers became an integral part of
the broadcast and time was set aside during every newscast for viewer Q & A and interviews.
This served not only to cement the television news media as the most popular form of need
gratification, but also created an image of credibility associated with the television media.
Consumers trusted television news because television news was not controlled by
government, but was rather a voice for the people. By allowing ordinary people to voice
their own opinions and be a part of the news using new technologies, consumers began to
gratify their needs using television consumption more than other means. Consumers could
also mold the television news media into a format that further gratified their needs, further
increasing consumer agency and interaction with the television news medium.
Consumers began to find a more reciprocal relationship with this media because
consumers heightened their expectations of a reciprocal relationship. While consuming
radio, consumers never expected to see images of what was happening abroad, but rather
simply listened and consumed information.
Television satisfied the need for information to a different gradation. Consumers
38
could not only be informed about current events, but could see the news unfolding in front
of them. By feeling as if consumers were a part of the news, they too began giving more to
the relationship, strengthening its reciprocal nature. As stated by Elliott Parker, “...viewers
must become active partners if stations are to retain long-term audience loyalty.”52
The more proactive audiences became with the consumption of their news, the more
audiences turned to television as their primary source of need gratification. The increase in
consumer agency strengthened the reciprocity of the relationship and encouraged each party
to continue to give to the other, reinforcing the mutual gain aspect of reciprocity.53 As
consumers and television news outlets simultaneously began to putting more effort into the
relationship, television news media continued to gratify consumer needs and increase
interaction between the two parties involved.
In this thesis, Nielsen ratings will serve as one aspect of the reciprocity measure.
Nielsen ratings numerically show whether and how many consumers' needs television
gratifies. If consumers are gratified by a particular station or newscast, they will return to
that news station, since they have a relationship and a history with that station. If television
stations are successful in retaining an audience, as illustrated by Nielsen Ratings, we will
deduce that consumer needs are being met by this news station, solidifying the two-way
relationship.
These ratings also illustrate the interdependency between gratification and
52 Parker, Elliott. Interactivity & Choice. AEJMC/TV Outreach, 10 Feb. 1996, Central Michigan
University. 12 Mar. 2008 <http://list.msu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9602B&L=aejmc&P=2555>.
53 Cropanzano, Russell, and Marie S. Mitchell. "Social Exchange Theory: an Interdisciplinary Review."
Journal of Management 31 (2005). SagePub. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 11 Feb. 2008.
Keyword: Trust reciprocity.
39
reciprocity, in that Nielsen ratings measure both consumer need gratification and the degree
to which news stations meet consumer demands with funding allocation and time for
feedback and viewer interaction with the news station.54
iReporting
In the context of this paper, iReporting has been defined as a user-based technology
that allows for increased interaction between consumers and television news media. It
includes, but is not limited to, consumers sending video-feeds and photos of news stories
worldwide into CNN for mass distribution.
As stated by Elliott Parker, iReporting is “removing the researcher as the middle man
[...] increasing direct contact with stations, it is highly promotable to audiences.”55 It is a
user-driven technology that increases contact with news stations by increasing interaction
between consumers and news outlets.
The first user-based technologies date back to the inception and growth of the
Internet. It is a user-driven technology allowing for the gratification of needs by providing a
wealth of information at the touch of a mouse.
The Internet gave rise to increased consumer interaction with a technology medium.
The abundance of information coupled with this new technology lead to the proliferation of
citizen journalism. Internet outlets for increased interaction like blogs on news websites,
discussion forums, chat rooms and websites like YouTube, which allow user-based content
in the form of video and pictures to be uploaded and shared with the world increased
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
40
consumer knowledge-sharing and inspired consumers to further investigate the 'truths'
presented to them in the mass media.
iReports offer something innovative to the consumer. Rather than simply blogging
to voice opinions about news, consumers now have the ability to produce their own news.
iReports allow consumers to show corporate management and executives what types of
news content and stories it should be focusing on in order to further gratify consumer needs.
The advent of iReporting has once again changed the format of the news report. As
a result of its inception, newscasts now include more time devoted to on-the-air activity with
consumers.56 This on-air activity includes on-air time devoted to consumer questions,
viewer feedback and comments about professionally produced news stories and iReports
produced by other consumers.
The ability to critique and question news casts, both professional and unfiltered,
creates entirely new arenas for discussion and feedback. It allows consumers to not only
interact with each other, but also further interact with the news station.
The transition from radio to television mirrors the transition from Internet blogs on
major television news stations to iReporting. Radio offered very little interaction between
consumers and as a result, consumers switched to television since specific needs were not
being gratified by radio. While Internet blogs offer a degree of interaction between
consumers and with the Internet medium, the interaction level offered by iReporting is to a
far higher gradation. Television and iReporting both offer video feeds and footage that can
be physically witnessed. As a result, television gained massive popularity and so too has the
56 See Appendix C – Content Analysis of CNN from 9/01 – 3/08.
41
idea of sharing video footage with the world via iReports.
While the above analogy is not a perfect one, it shows that by adding the element of
physically being able to watch news unfold, consumers feel more connected to the television
medium. As a result, consumers can interact with the television news medium in more
thought-provoking ways.
Some of these forms of interaction include: discussion on and off-the air with news
personnel, discussion and debate on and off-the-air with fellow consumers, the submission
of video footage to major news stations about current events and consumer commentary on
the very news they create.57 The hypothesis of this thesis is that the increase in interaction
should lead to an increased trust relationship between consumers and the television news
media, although whether this actually occurs will be explored in Chapter four.
In sum, the power of submitting iReports to major television stations has
transformed the relationship between consumers and the television news media. By
submitting news footage that consumers themselves produce themselves, consumers bolster
their interactivity with the television news media. These increases in interaction also
strengthen the reciprocal relationship between the television news media and the consumer,
as both parties give and receive information from each other for the purpose of benefiting
the other.58
Trust
During the age of the one-way relationship, trust could not be measurably
57 Goldstein, Johnathan. Neil Postman's Criticisms of the Television Medium. London: MCS, 1993. 13
Mar. 2008 <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/jog9901.html>.
58 Ibid.
42
established between the consumers and the news medium. Radio, the primary outlet of
media, was used because consumers relied on it for their need gratification. The reliance
upon radio meant that consumers could not have reciprocity with this news medium, which
limited the interactivity consumers could have with it. As a result, radio was used to feed
information into the public and the public consumed this information with very little agency
in deliberating its credibility.
However during the two-way relationship, people looked more to television to
gratify consumer entertainment needs, rather than for substantive information. As a result,
the popular perception of television as entertainment strained the reciprocal nature of the
relationship between the two parties, since consumer perception of the television news
media was not based on the credibility of the medium.
During the 1950s, Edward Murrow changed the forum of debate by using television
to spark a movement against McCarthyism. Consumers began utilizing television as a voice
for their own opinions, sparking transparent discourse about current events and policies. As
a result, public outcry ended McCarthyism in the U.S., and created a new purpose for what
used to be a medium used solely for entertainment.
Television personalities also played a role in establishing further trust with
consumers. Correspondents such as Walter Cronkite and Edward Murrow provided a
foundation for trust that has continued to grow among consumers.
Cronkite is also remembered as the most trusted man in news. “Walter Cronkite
came to earn our trust [...] What they [news anchors] had to say was not questioned, or in
43
any way disputed, because no alternative sources of information existed.”59
While consumers were gratified by Mr. Cronkite, there was no interaction between
consumers and the television news. Consumers 'trusted' Walter Cronkite because they had
limited other options for need gratification. Therefore, the lack of consumer choice and
interactivity makes this 'trust' facetious.
The above example shows that need gratification alone is not enough to create
consumer trust in news. Reciprocity between consumers and the television news media,
consumer agency in deciphering the information and consumer interaction with the
television news media, also play pivotal roles in the development of healthy consumer trust
of the television news media.
As television continued to provide gratification to consumers, consumers reciprocal
relationship with the television began to grow. As stated by Martha Stone, “Interactivity has
become one of the hallmarks of digital journalism. It has taught traditional media that twoway communication between user and media, rather than one-way delivery of news, is a tool
to bolster credibility.”60
Consumers began to become more interactive with the media, submitting viewer
questions, comments and feedback to news correspondents. Correspondents subsequently
devoted air-time to these viewer concerns, stemming further debate on hot-button issues of
the time – primarily whether the U.S. should go to war in Vietnam.
59 "The Most Trusted Man in America." Word Press (2008). 19 Mar. 2008
<http://meanderingmissives.wordpress.com/2008/03/16/the-most-trusted-man-in-america/>.
60 Stone, Martha. "Interactivity and Transparency." Poynter Online (2001). 19 Mar. 2008
<http://www.poynter.org/content/content_view.asp?id=4703>.
44
The advent of cable news dramatically changed the traditional trust relationship
between consumers and the television news. According to Spranger, "the prime time
development of electronic magazines has paralleled the growth of cable television, first as an
adjunct to, and then finally as a communications medium approaching a position
overshadowing that of traditional broadcast television.”61
As television news outlets disseminated information and made it available to
consumers, consumers began to associate a degree of credibility with aspects of the
television news. The plethora of news outlets meant that consumers could choose which
news sources to interact with and which particular news stories to consume. As a result,
consumers only consumed television news outlets that gratified consumer needs and
stimulated a strengthening of the two-way relationship between consumers and the television
news media.
The increase in consumer agency and interaction with the news station heightened
the level of trust consumers had with the television news media. The increase in consumer
interaction simultaneously forced the news outlets to increase their level of transparency and
interactivity with the consumer, allowing for news outlet's accountability of presented news
stories and reliability of news sources.
Interactivity is a key player in the reciprocal trust relationship between consumers
and the television news media. According to Nick Higham, “'Interactivity' is undoubtedly
popular: from Big Brother to Great Britons broadcasters have been goading couch potatoes
61 "TV News Magazines and the Credibility Issue: the Scope of the Problem." Journal of the New York
State Speech Commuication Association (1995). 19 Mar. 2008
<http://www.uri.edu/artsci/pr/tony/articles/Credibility_of_TV_News.htm>
45
into responding actively, not just passively, to what they watch.”62
Television networks such as CNN have consistently been ranked at the top of ratings
measures of consumer satisfaction. The fact that consumers are constantly tuning into CNN
to meet their needs is telling, however, it does not explain why new user based technologies
such as iReporting were further needed. While television news outlets provide a degree of
interaction, the success of iReporting shows that consumers are technologically savvy and
want further interaction with the medium than was provided before.
Currently, we have reached an interesting precipice in the digital age. Consumers
have a multitude of choices for their need gratification and the agency to voice their own
opinions. Consumers also have an interactive foundation, via user-based technologies such
as blogs and video news feeds from mobile devices, to assist them in their need for further
interaction and need gratification. As a result, consumers are now creating their own means
of need gratification with iReporting.
The television news landscape looks like a combination of user-created news footage
and news reported by correspondents and anchors. As interactivity continues to shape the
format of the television newscast, it will be interesting to see whether this increases or
decreases consumer credibility of television news.
The advent of new interactive technologies, such as iReporting, adds a unique level
of interactivity to the existing reciprocal relationship between consumers and the television
news media. Television news stations must put forth decidedly more effort in order to
62 Higham, Nick. "Interactive TV Still 'Teletext on Steroids'" BBC News 18 Feb. 2003. 20 Mar. 2008
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2771095.stm>.
46
maintain reciprocity with the consumer, as now consumers not only have discretion in the
news they submit, but also a noticeable effect on the content and quality of news stories that
are aired by professionals.
To close, the strengthening of reciprocity and interactivity between consumers and
the television news media should lead to increased consumer trust in television news. This
thesis seeks to explore the validity of this hypothesis in chapter four.
First, we will conduct a content analysis of CNN during the years of 2001 to 2008.
This will reveal the amount of interactivity between consumers and television news outlets
by highlighting the number of civilian interviews, Q & A segments and iReports submitted.
An interactivity scale ranging from low to high will be used to identify trends in consumer
interactivity via iReporting vs. traditional news coverage.
We will also analyze statistics of Nielsen Ratings for the years in which iReporting
was introduced and proliferated. The content analysis will show the popularity of CNN in
relation to others that have not adopted this user-driven technology.
The model states that the increase in interactivity due to this technology should
strengthen reciprocity and consumer gratification, leading to increased consumer trust.
Analysis of the Nielsen Ratings will reveal consumer satisfaction of a news station based on
the assumption that consumers repeatedly return to this news station for gratification.
To measure the reciprocity variable, we will examine the amount of funding and onair time CNN devotes to interactive technology and solutions for increased consumer
gratification. These indicators demonstrate the reciprocal nature of the relationship; as
television news outlets devote more resources to increased consumer interaction and
47
gratification, so too do consumers give back to the news station with increased consumer
loyalty to this particular news affiliate.
We will also include an analysis of survey data disseminated to a convenience sample.
The survey addresses consumers current views on iReporting and whether it is more, less or
equally trusted than professionally created news. Consumer trust is based on the content,
quality and source of news reports and iReporting, as outlined in the distributed survey.63
Chapter Four: Analysis of Data
Content Analysis of CNN
The content analysis of CNN ranges from the years 2001 to 2008. CNN was chosen
for this content analysis, because it provided the catalyst for the idea of using interactive
technologies, otherwise known as iReporting, to allow consumers to submit breaking news
63 See Appendix E – Distributed Survey (attached).
48
into the news station for public broadcast. The date September 11th 2001 was selected as the
starting point for the content analysis because the horrific events of this day led anxious
consumers to turn to CNN for an account of the unfolding of events. Significantly, CNN
was the first news station there to cover the story. Having tuned in to CNN, consumers
repeatedly turned to this station as a means of gratifying their needs for news.
CNN was also unique insofar as its newscasts were highly interactive, relying
primarily on eyewitness testimony and civilian accounts to break the news to the public. The
collaboration between consumers and the television news media on 9/11 cemented one
aspect of the reciprocal nature of the relationship, as each was supplementing the other in
trying to disseminate information to the public as quickly as possible.
The content analysis proceeded as follows. Starting with the date 9/11, I viewed one
newscast ever two weeks up until the end of March 2008. I believed that this number of
newscasts was sufficient to determine the trend of interactivity between consumers and the
television news media over a long period of time. This choice allowed me to analyze each
newscast in depth.
Newscasts used in this content analysis come from the Vanderbilt Television News
Archive, which shows television newscasts from CNN everyday from 9pm to 10pm. Except
for the broadcast on 9/11, newscasts were chosen blindly; I shut my eyes and scrolled the
mouse over a selection of two weeks. I chose the newscast wherever the mouse stopped.
I also developed interactivity criteria to use for the analysis. The criteria for
interactivity includes: the number of correspondent/civilian interviews in one newscast, the
number of solicitations to consumers to participate in on-air activities such as Q & A, the
49
number of consumers that called in to answer these questions, and the number of iReports
submitted to CNN. A more detailed outline of the interactivity criteria is included as
Appendix B.64
In total, I watched 158 newscasts that took place over 6 years and seven months on
CNN. This time period includes the four months after 9/11 and the three months into 2008
where newscasts were available. A detailed outline of the content analysis is provided in
Appendix C.65
The data is subject to two major shortcomings. First, the analysis does not take into
account the variety of newscasts that CNN produces, but only the evening newscasts from
9pm to 10pm daily. Thus, I could not compare interactivity levels from the evening
newscast to an afternoon or morning newscast. These newscasts might have been more or
less interactive than the data presented here. Secondly, newscasts were unavailable for the
first two weeks of April in 2003 because of the preparation for the war in Iraq. These two
weeks of newscasts are excluded from the content analysis because of their unavailability.
Findings
As evidence of interaction, I looked at the following: the amount of
correspondent/civilian interviews, viewer call-ins to questions posed by correspondents and
solicitations from correspondents to partake in the newscast. The analysis showed that there
was a steady increase in interaction from the years 2002 to 2007. Because only partial
64 See Appendix B: Interactivity Criteria (attached).
65 See Appendix C – Content Analysis (attached).
50
periods of the years 2001 and 2008 were considered, the findings for these years cannot be
accurately portrayed. Graph A depicts the results for the years 2002 to 2007.66 Graph B
illustrates the trend of iReports beginning from 2005 until 2008.67
In 2006, there was a sudden drop in consumer interactivity. This drop in
interactivity may have related to the dates chosen for analysis. Perhaps days were
consistently chosen with news stories that revolved only around correspondent analysis and
expert predictions.
Another explanation for the lag in interactivity is that 2006 was a slow news year, in
terms of national catastrophes and disasters. After the 9/11 disaster and the onset of the war
in Iraq, interaction may have reached its peak in 2005. In comparison to 2005, which
included many breaking news stories about the Iraq War, news stories in 2006 mainly
focused on the public discontent with the Iraq War and stories of war casualties.
News became more lively in the following year and so too did the amount of
interactivity. Key news stories included the shooting at VA Tech and the bridge collapse in
Minnesota. In addition, as described below, a large number of iReports were aired on CNN
during this year, further illustrating the increasing interactivity between consumers and the
television news outlet.
iReports in the content analysis
The first iReports dealt with weather conditions and were directed at consumermeteorologists. Thus, as consumers sent in photos of weather conditions around the U.S.,
66 See Graph A (attached).
67 See Graph B (attached).
51
iReports became synonymous with reporting severe weather conditions and natural disasters.
The first iReport was introduced in 2005. It was about Hurricane Dennis, one of the many
hurricanes that ravaged the Southern U.S. that summer. This was an anonymous report, and
the only iReport presented in 2005.
A second iReport, presented in 2006 was about holiday road conditions. Given this
consistent subject matter, one might assume that weather reporting was one of CNN’s major
intentions in introducing iReporting. However, the subject matter of is iReporting changed
in 2007.
A record 23 iReports were aired on CNN in 2007. The sheer number of iReports
aired on CNN points to heightened interactivity levels between consumers and the television
news media. These numbers suggest that CNN executives appreciated that consumers
wanted to be involved in the production of news. The content of iReports began to shift
over time as well. As in the previous two years, the first iReports that were submitted in
2007 regarded weather conditions. However, beginning on the 17th of April, reports took on
the flavor of citizen journalism. Chart A demonstrates the increasing variety of stories
submitted as iReports to CNN in 2007. 68
A number of events stimulated these developments. For example, the shooting at
Virginia Tech was the first time that iReports were shown repeatedly on nationwide
television. Moreover, whereas previously iReporters were not acknowledged, in this case the
iReporter was named and interviewed. The iReporter also had a chance to engage the
correspondent, asking questions, interviewing witnesses of their own, and adding their own
68 See Chart A (below).
52
commentary to their report. Equally, if not more important, The Virgina Tech iReports
generated massive support for iReporting. In a similar fashion, the collapse of a bridge in
Minnesota, killing thousands and leaving many others missing, catapulted iReporting into the
limelight.
On August 4, 7 iReports were aired all day on CNN, depicting the disaster in a
montage sequence from different angles. Moreover, attributions were given to the
iReporters, and the iReporters were able to add their own commentary and ask questions
about why the event occurred. Reports such as these made iReporting increasingly popular
with consumers.
Chart A: Content of iReports Submitted in 2007
Date of Event Content of iReport Breaking
News
Story?
Number of Number of supplementary
iReports
consumer interactions
submitted
January 2007
No
1
19
February 2007 --
--
--
--
March 2007
Adverse Weather
No
1
26
April 2007
VA Tech Shooting Yes
2
18
May 2007
CA Wildfires
Yes
1
12
June 2007
--
--
--
--
July 2007
--
--
--
--
August 2007
MN Bridge
Collapse
Yes
7
8
September
2007
-Floods in
Myanmar
-Storm Gabrielle
Yes
1
9
Yes
1
11
October 2007 CA Wildfires
Yes
3
7
November
2007
--
--
--
Snow in Midwest
--
53
December
2007
Total
-Omaha Mall
Yes
Shooting
-Holiday Travel
No
-Adverse Weather
No
1
9
4
8
1
8
--
23
iReports
135 interactions
--
Common to all these reports was greater focus on citizens. Each of these iReports
was coupled with at least one, if not more, citizen interviews. These interviews took place
either with the iReporter him/herself or other eyewitnesses to the event. The fact that
interviews supplemented every iReport aired in this analysis is highly significant; iReports did
not replace traditional interaction between consumers and the news media, but rather
bolstered the interaction with the television news media by providing a new way consumers
could become more involved in gratifying their needs.
For example, in 2007, the number of viewers that participated in a typical newscast
using conventional methods, i.e. call-in questions, face-to-face civilian interviews and Q & A
segments with news correspondents, was 243. Out of those 243 interactions, 127 of these
persons were associated with iReports, including but not limited to, comments on iReports
submitted and questions for the iReporter.69
These figures support the importance of increased interaction furthering need
gratification and eventually increased consumer trust. Over 50% of the interactions that
took place on newscasts in 2007 were about iReports submitted by fellow viewers. These
findings suggest that iReporting is effective not only in terms of news dissemination, but also
69 See Graph A (attached).
54
in sparking discussion amongst fellow citizens about the iReport's content and substance.
Interactivity broken down by Days
According to Katharine Seeyle, Sunday night is still the biggest night of the week for
most television news stations.70 The content analysis not only supports this finding, but
also adds a new element to it. It shows that consumers are the most interactive with their
media on the weekends, particularly Sunday. Out of 158 newscasts viewed, 38 of them were
on the weekend (24%). The total amount of interactivity on these days, Saturday and
Sunday respectively, totaled 30% of the overall interactivity for all days viewed.
The peak of consumer interaction took place on Sunday, February 4 2007. Thirty
counts of interaction were recorded on this day. The stories covered included but were not
limited to tornadoes in Florida, teen drinking, models with weight problems and a visit to the
CNN Epic Center, which includes video streams from different news affiliates and citizens
around the world about breaking news. The fact that the highest recorded interaction was
on a Sunday bolsters the opinion that Sunday is the most popular day for television news
consumption.
It is also interesting to note that iReports were more frequently shown on weekends
than weekdays. In total, 28 iReports were submitted and aired on CNN over the six years
viewed. Out of these 28 iReports, 18 of them were submitted on a weekend day. Over 50%
of the iReports aired on CNN were aired on the weekend during prime time newscasts.71
This finding reveals a lot about the increase in iReporting's stature both with respect
70 Seelye, Katharine Q. "CNN/YouTube Debate Ratings." New York Times 24 July 2007. 5 Apr. 2008
<http://thecaucus.nytimes.com/2007/07/24/cnnyoutube-debate-ratings.html>.
71 See Chart B (below).
55
to consumers and the news media as well as the proliferation of iReporting as a form of
consumer interaction with the television news media. A majority of the iReports submitted
to CNN were aired on the weekend, days when consumer interaction with the television
news media is already high. As a result, a greater number of consumers were inclined to
interact with the television news media by commenting on both the iReport and the
correspondent-presented news stories. As more and more consumers interact, and more
and more consumers are exposed to iReporting, and assess its accuracy, the more
trustworthy they are likely to find it. At the same time, increased consumer interaction will
likely enhance of value of iReporting for CNN.
The high level of consumer interaction on the weekends and the growth in numbers
of iReports broadcast at those times suggests that CNN finds iReporting to be a legitimate
source for news. The fact that CNN airs iReports predominantly on the weekends is a
reaffirmation of the iReport itself; the news correspondent may introduce the story, but the
iReporter adds consumer-based commentary, analysis and criticism to supplement the stories
news correspondents present.
The following table shows the breakdown in consumer interactivity on each day,
including the number of newscasts watched, the number of iReports, the average consumer
interaction, the total number of consumer interactions per day and the percentage of
consumer interaction each news day.
Chart B: Breakdown of Days
Number of
Newscasts
Number of Number of Percentage of
iReports
total
total consumer
56
Average number
of consumer
viewed
viewed
consumer interaction
interactions
viewed (f2f
interviews,
viewer callins)
interactions for
total newscasts
(rounded to
nearest whole
number)
Monday
27
3
178
178/1180=15% 178/27=7
Tuesday
22
2
192
192/1180=16% 192/22=9
Wednesday
24
1
103
103/1180=9%
Thursday
27
1
225
225/1180=19% 225/27=8
Friday
17
3
123
123/1180=10% 123/17=7
Saturday
17
15
158
158/1180=13% 158/17=9
Sunday
21
3
201
201/1180=17% 201/21=10
Total
158
28
1180
100%
103/24=4
54
As can be seen from the table, although Sundays have the most iReports, Saturdays
were not far behind. In total, there were 28 iReports shown, out of 158 newscasts observed
(18%). This figure shows that more people are using iReporting to communicate with the
television media. Based on the data in this chart, television executives can determine what
types of news stories are the most appealing to consumers.
Graph C provides a more in-depth look at the consumer interaction percentages (not
including iReports) per day of the newscasts viewed in the analysis.72 This chart lays out the
number of iReports within the content analysis, the stories the iReports covered, and the
number of other interactions that occurred in conjunction with the iReport. Supplementary
interactions include eyewitness interviews, correspondent questions and commentary about
72 See Graph C (attached).
57
the iReport itself. As the chart makes clear, major news stories were most affiliated with
iReports until mid 2007.
Chart C: iReport Overview for all iReports aired (2005 - 2008)
News Story
Date of the Event iReporter Breaking Number
identified News? of
iReports
submitted
Number of
supplementary
consumer
interactions
California Wildfires
-Monday,
Yes
October 22, 2007
-Sunday, May 20,
2007
Yes
Yes
3
7
Yes
1
12
VA Tech Shooting
Tuesday, April
17, 2007
Yes
Yes
2
18
Omaha Mall
Shooting
Wednesday,
December 5,
2007
Yes
Yes
1
9
Floods in Myanmar
Thursday
September 27,
2007
Yes
Yes
1
9
Presidential Debates
Tuesday, March
14, 2008
Yes
No
3
2
Hurricane Dennis
Saturday July 9,
2005
No
Yes
1
7
MN Bridge Collapse Saturday, August Yes
4, 2007
Yes
7
8
Holiday Travel
Yes
No
4
8
No
No
1
11
Snow in Midwest
Saturday, January Yes
27, 2007
No
1
19
Storm Gabrielle
Sunday,
September 9,
No
1
11
-Saturday
December 22,
2007
-Sunday
November 26,
2006
Yes
58
2007
Other Adverse
Weather Conditions
Total
-Saturday
Yes
December 22,
2007
-Saturday, March Yes
17, 2007
No
1
8
No
1
26
14 days with
iReport
segments
--
28
iReports
aired
155 counts of
supplement
interaction
--
The first most noticeable observation is that iReports have not replaced conventional
forms of interaction, such as face-to-face interviews, call-in segments and consumer Q & A
on newscasts. Every iReport submitted had supplementary interaction regarding the iReport
or the story it covered. This observation is very telling for the future of iReporting.
iReports do replace other forms of interaction that already exist on a typical newscast; rather,
they further the conversation by offering different perspectives about news stories and
topics covered on-the-air.
Another observation is that iReports are usually aired in association with breaking
news stories, i.e. major catastrophes and natural disasters. Out of the 28 iReports aired, 20
of them related to natural disasters and national tragedies (74%). However, more recently,
iReports have been aired on CNN for more diverse stories as well, such as holiday travel and
Presidential debates.
Identification of the iReporter is an important source of credibility, and for the
purposes of this thesis, one of the measures of trust. As Chart C reveals, 7 % of the
iReports submitted to CNN in 2005 and 2006 were anonymous. However, in 2007 and
59
2008, every iReport submitted had an attribution to the iReporter and even subsequent
interviews with the iReporter. CNN's attribution of the iReporter suggests that consumers
want to identify the source of news in order to determine its legitimacy, CNN has
acknowledged the need for source credibility by recognizing the iReport and the iReporter.
Finally, it is important to note that a full analysis of the year 2008 could not be
completed, as only 3.5 months have passed in this year. However, in these three and onehalf months, three iReports were still aired on CNN relating to the upcoming presidential
election. According to the Pew Research Center, these are the topics that were most
discussed in 2007 on CNN. Given the excitement that surrounds such political events, we
can expect iReports to increase in number as the president election fast approaches.
The following figure provides data calculated by the Project for Excellence in
Journalism outlining the five most discuss topics in cable television. It is interesting to see
how this data correlates to the content analysis.73
Top 5 Topics in Cable (2007) – PEJ
73 Top 5 Topics on Cable News 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=801&ct=col&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1&
c3=1&c4=1&c5=1&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
60
The results are somewhat similar. U.S. Foreign Affairs, including the War in Iraq and
U.S. Foreign Policy were among the top stories in close to 75% of the newscasts I observed.
Crime stories were also very predominant in the content analysis. Stories ranging from
homicide and murder to rape and assault were prevalent in every newscast. These stories are
also not exclusive to 2007, as these stories were observed several times in each year in the
analysis.
However, there are also some glaring differences that must be addressed. First, the
occurrences of natural disasters and tragedies was much higher in the content analysis than
the graph illustrates, especially in 2007. One of the reasons for this discrepancy might be the
way the content analysis was performed. By only observing two newscasts a month, I may
have missed some of the stories to which the graph alludes.
Secondly, the incidence of iReports was very high in 2007, according to the content
61
analysis. This, however, is not taken into consideration in the PEW graph. The reason for
this lack of attribution is because iReports are associated with many of the above topics.
Thus, differentiating the iReport from the news story itself becomes impossible unless every
newscast in 2007 was watched and each iReport was counted. Again, due to the nature of
this analysis and the time constraints, performing a more in-depth content analysis was
impossible.
Finally, the above graph does not take into consideration the number of
entertainment stories aired on CNN. Out of the entire 6+ year analysis, about 10% of the
stories watched fell into the entertainment category.74 Entertainment, in this context, is
defined as stories revolving around culture such as art, music, sports, dance, celebrities,
Hollywood, award shows, etc.
The overall mean of interactivity is 8, meaning that, on average, consumers interacted
with the television news media eight times per newscast. As seen in Graph D, only 2% of all
newscasts had no interaction with consumers.75 This statistic reveals the importance of
interaction in the very format of the newscast itself, a subject that will be discussed below.
Note that Graph D also does not count the number of iReports in the analysis, rather it
describes is the range of percentages of consumer interactions over the years analyzed in the
content analysis.76
Changes in the format of the Newscast
74 See Appendix C: Content Analysis (attached).
75 See Graph D (attached).
76 Ibid.
62
The format of the newscast has markedly changed over the period of this content
analysis. In the month following the high interactivity of 9/11, there was relatively low
interaction. The final news segment for every segment was live looks at Ground Zero and
speculation about America's next steps in fighting terrorism.77 That interactivity was low in
the month following 9/11 was most likely due to the confusion that existed in America
during that time.
For example, CNN had very little information to disseminate about the future, and
chose not to speculate. Instead, CNN showed photos from Ground Zero as a reminder to
viewers of the events of that day and to emphasize that America would never again be the
same. Beginning in November 2001, weeknight news segments concluded with interviews
with family members of the victims of 9/11. These civilian interviews continued for the
following 5 years. Even though the interviews were not always with victims' family
members, news segments concluded with interviews with other civilians about innovative
stories.
These civilian interview segments became so popular with CNN consumers that
CNN incorporated them as a regular segment on a typical newscast, calling it “Segment
7.”78 Segment 7 became the outlet for consumers’ interactivity on weeknights, as this news
segment consistently depicted interviews with ordinary people doing extraordinary things.
These segments were optimistic in the face of war stories and violence abroad. These
stories usually consisted of ordinary people overcoming tribulations, experiencing triumph
77 See Appendix C – Content Analysis (attached).
78 Ibid.
63
and success, or expressing sadness or loss. Also of note, almost 50% of the stories featured
in “Segment 7” were stories about entertainment. Entertainment, in this context, is defined
as stories revolving around culture such as art, music, sports, and dance. Some examples of
“Segment 7” news stories include, but are not limited to: child prodigy piano players, soccer
fans and the World Cup and aspiring artists and photographers giving back to the
community.
Closing the show with these optimistic stories about everyday people may have
inspired more viewers to return to the newscast because of its upbeat tone. Moreover, these
Segment 7 stories, whether informational or entertaining, all played upon emotions to
engage the audience. Most likely, these emotions engaged news audiences and interested
them in further interacting with the television news media.
As the weeknight format of the prime time newscast evolved, so too did the format
of the weekend prime time newscast. Prime time newscasts on the weekends began to
become increasingly interactive as more consumers tuned in on the weekends. A new
segment called “Last Call” was introduced specifically for the weekend broadcast. In this
news segment, a “Last Call” Question would be introduced at the beginning of the newscast
and reminders of the question would surface throughout the newscast. The segment ended
with viewer call-ins answering the question.
“Last Call” became integrated into the weekend newscast the same way “Segment 7”
became a staple of the weeknight newscast. “Last Call,” was more interactive than “Segment
7” because, in contrast to “Segment 7,” callers could be heard and the audience could
respond not only to the news correspondent, but also to each other. This feature of call and
64
response was completely absent in the “Segment 7” newscasts.
Weeknight and weekend formats began to converge somewhat in 2006. Replacing
Segment 7, a new segment called “The Shot “ resembled “Last Call” in that it afforded
greater interactivity. Previously, consumers could comment and react to each other's ideas
only on weekends. But with the advent of “the Shot,” consumers could interact on
weeknights as well. In this segment, consumers sent in interesting or newsworthy photos,
while responses were sent via email. These responses were read on-the-air for the last five
minutes of the show. Although iReports are still shown predominantly on weekends, their
growing popularity will likely lead to greater convergence of formats in the future.
The graph below shows how CNN does its reporting: As the Project for Excellence
in Journalism, reports, even though CNN’s reports are mainly packaged they are still highly
interactive.79 For example, 27% of the news segments in 2007 consisted of interviews.
However, it is important to note that this data probably comprises all interviews and not
solely those with citizens. Additionally, content comprised of banter, weather and unedited
a/v, including iReporting, is much lower in the graph than the content analysis reveals. One
of the reasons for this might be the interactivity criteria used in the thesis differs from that
used in the graph. In addition to the weather and unedited a/v, I included face-to-face
interviews with civilians and call-in segments with viewers.
How CNN does its Reporting (2007) – PEJ
79 How CNN does its Reporting 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008 Cable News Cumulative Audience 2005. Project for Excellence in
Journalism. Washington DC: Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=709&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1&
c3=1&c4=1&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
65
Television ratings & their relation to consumer need gratification
As stated in chapter two, television ratings measure need gratification by using a
repeatability measure. The measure assumes that if CNN is gratifying consumer needs,
consumers will continue to return to CNN to gratify their needs. The repeatability of
consumer loyalty to CNN is reflected in television ratings. A shortcoming of this
repeatability measure is that it becomes difficult to know whether the same viewers are in
fact tuning in repeatedly because Nielsen ratings reflect overall consumer gratification and
not repeat viewers.
Most studies suggest, however, that CNN has continued, for the most part, to gratify
consumer needs.80 For example, Graph E illustrates that those who subscribe to cable
80 Cable News Subscribers by Channel. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http:d//www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=606&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1
&c3=1&c4=0&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
66
television prefer CNN to other news networks, albeit only by a small margin.81 Moreover,
a high volume of people have subscribed to CNN over a significant period of time.
Moreover, when iReporting began in 2005, CNN had a significant lead in viewers over Fox
News and MSNBC.82 Graph F illustrates these trends for the year 2005.83
How do we explain CNN’s 2006 dip in prime time viewership—also evident in the
content analysis—when other major news affiliates such as Fox News were experiencing
gains.84 Its possible that the dip in viewership may relate to the decline in interactivity
during this year. Not being as interactive as in other years, consumers may have been
insufficiently gratified. and thus they looked elsewhere to meet their needs.. Graph G
illustrates the change in viewership.85
Notwithstanding this dip, it is clear that CNN has a loyal following, as it has
maintained a relatively constant viewership beginning in 2007. 86 As Graph H depicts,
although Fox News still had higher ratings, CNN viewer remained the same, suggesting that
CNN adequately met consumer needs for gratification.87 Daytime viewership of CNN has
81 See Graph E (attached).
82 Cable News Cumulative Audience 2005. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=709&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1&
c3=1&c4=1&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
83 See Graph F (attached)
84 Cable News Prime Time Median Audience 2006. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington
DC: Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2007/chartland.asp?id=482&ct=line&dir=&sort=&col2_box=1&col3_b
ox=1&col4_box=1
85 See Graph G (attached).
86 Cable News Prime Time Median Audience 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington
DC: Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=604&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=0&c2=1&
c3=1&c4=1&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
87 See Graph H (attached).
67
also remained constant over the last two years. It is only about 300,000 viewers shy of
CNN's prime time viewership.88 ( See Graph I ).89
The number of people tuning in to
CNN during the prime time hours tune in to during the day as well. Although it is
impossible to determine whether all these viewers were in fact repeat viewers, this type of
audience retention shows the loyalty of CNN's audience. Moreover, this consistency
contrasts with Fox New, where the number of viewers has fluctuated greatly over the years.
Even though Fox News has acquired a larger audience than CNN, it has been less able to
gratify their needs.
One surprising finding of the research is that CNN’s audience is relatively small. 90
Graph J shows that a much larger number of people choose network prime time news over
cable prime time news.91 One likely reason for such loyalty to network prime time news is
the greater longevity of network television. Having been relatively satisfied, consumers may
be reluctant to break the relationships they have with these network stations. Such kind of
consumer lock-in is a common occurrence.
88 Cable News Daytime Median Audience 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/chartland.php?id=605&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1&
c3=1&c4=0&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
89 See Graph I (attached).
90 Cable News vs. Network News Viewership 2006. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington
DC: Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr.
2008http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2007/chartland.asp?id=370&ct=col&dir=&sort=&col1_box=1&co
l2_box=1&col3_box=1&col4_box=1
91 See Graph J (attached).
68
Chapter 5: CNN's contribution to the reciprocal relationship & Survey Data Analysis
On-air time devoted to interactivity
As demonstrated in the previous section, prime time television newscasts have
constantly evolved to accommodate the need for further interaction between the consumer
and the network. Some of these changes included showing iReports and conducting face-toface interviews throughout the newscast with eyewitnesses and civilians.
CNN's format of increased interactivity is one contribution that CNN has made to
the reciprocal relationship that it has with its consumers. On average, the network devotes
at least eight minutes per newscast to civilian interviews, call-in segments and iReporting.92
The time period constitutes d 15% of the entire newscast. Over the course of 6+ years,
approximately 790 minutes were devoted to consumer interactivity via call-in segments,
viewer Q & A and civilian interviews.
While the content analysis in this thesis demonstrated the increase in consumer
interactivity as well as the format changes of the newscast, it does not address the monetary
exchange between CNN and its consumers. Because CNN is a cable news outlet,
consumers must 'pay to participate' with CNN. However, not reflected in this payment is
the amount of resources CNN sets aside to foster sustained interactivity with its consumers.
As an important measure of reciprocity, this data would be very helpful in this analysis of
iReporting.
Television news ratings show that CNN is meeting consumer needs by offering
increased outlets of interaction for its consumers. As a result, consumers return to CNN for
92 See Content Analysis (Appendix C).
69
their continued need gratification, as illustrated by consumers’ viewership ratings. These
ratings also show that the two intervening variables are interdependent. in that the same
indicator can be used to measure both variables.
Unfortunately, the Nielson ratings do not reveal how many people are repeat viewers
or first time viewer. In order to decipher which viewers were returning to specific news
stations repeatedly, time-consuming analysis of each individual would need to be conducted
– an endeavor that few television rating corporations have resources to execute. However,
without this information, we can’t provide an accurate assessment of CNN retention rates.
The way that television ratings are measured and published might also be
problematic. These measures might be inherently inaccurate, because ratings are calculated
by counting viewers every minute, rather than viewers that tune in for longer segments and
stay tuned to CNN for their need gratification.93 Thus, a significant portion of the
television viewing community is excluded from the analysis if they tune in to a particular
news station for an hour-long segment of news.
To supplement our analysis, we can use some other measures to determine the
reciprocal nature of the relationship between consumers and CNN. In particular, to
determine the reciprocity of the relationship,we will consider what CNN contributes
financially to the relationship.
Expenses
Graph K compares the typical programming expenses that CNN has accrued over
93 Rendall, Steve. "The Ratings Mirage." Extra! Mar.-Apr. 2004. 8 Apr. 2008
<http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=2005&printer_friendly=1.html>
70
the span of seven years as compared to other cable news stations.94 As the graph makes
clear CNN has far more expenses than any of the other news affiliates. These expenses are
not all due to iReporting, but the rise in expenses from 2004 to 2005 may be correlated with
the inception of the user-based technology.95 In this graph, we can see that CNN pays the
most in terms of programming expenses. For example, in 2006, CNN devoted 350 million
dollars to what is labeled as “the newsroom.” These expenses include but are not limited to:
creating 'better' programming for its consumers, expanding its international newsrooms and
outlets for international news and the 'appeal-ability' of its website.96 From this evidence, it
appears as if CNN contributes to the reciprocal relationship by setting aside resources
specifically not only to offer better programming, but also to make the website more
appealing for consumers, whether they choose to submit iReports or not.
Coupled with these monetary investments, which is more than ½ of the revenue it
takes in, CNN also contributes to the reciprocal relationship by facilitating iReports on
traditional newscasts, changing the format of their newscasts to foster increased interaction
and soliciting consumer feedback via the submission of iReports and other traditional means
of interactivity included in the newscast. According to CNN's website, there are 102,000
iReports on CNN and its affiliate stations worldwide. Specifically, 900 of these iReports
94 See Graph K (attached).
95 Cable News Programming Expenses 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/2008/chartland.php?id=613&ct=line&dir=&sort=&c1=1&c2=1&c
3=1&c4=0&c5=0&c6=0&c7=0&c8=0&c9=0&c10=0&d3=0&dd3=1
96 Cable News Programming Expenses 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/2007/narrative_cabletv_newsinvestment.asp?cat=5&media=6
71
were aired on CNN and its affiliate stations worldwide last month.97 This statistic is
extremely telling, in that while only a small percentage of iReports submitted are aired on
CNN, consumers are engaging with the interactive technology and creating and submitting
iReports worldwide to CNN. In response, iReports need their own URL to facilitate the
sheer number of iReports that come into CNN on a monthly basis.
According to the Pew State of the Media study, CNN streams an average of 50,000
news videos a month.98 This number is noteworthy, if only for the sheer amount of
interactivity that transpires between CNN and consumers. It is significant that even though
not all of these iReports are aired on CNN, consumers continue to submit iReports to CNN,
where they are archived on the iReport website and consumers can view them online, if they
so choose. Consumers can also leave blog commentary and even video responses to each
other's iReports. This feedback loop that CNN has created has brought more consumers
into the discussion than ever before. Creating this platform is yet another contribution
CNN has made to the reciprocal relationship.
CNN's Revenues
The process by which CNN makes its profits is two-fold. First, CNN earns a
substantial amount from advertisers. However, it is difficult to know exactly how much of
that advertising revenue is devoted back into advertisements specifically encouraging
iReporting. CNN's advertising revenues are calculated in the aggregate, therefore it is
97 "IReports on CNN." IReports Submitted. 18 Apr. 2008. 19 Apr. 2008 <http://www.ireport.com/recentupdates.jspa?sortBy=oncnn&filterBy=oncnn>.
98 Digital Findings 2006. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC: Journalism.Org, 2005. 7
Apr. 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/2007/narrative_cabletv_contentanalysis.asp?cat=6&media=6
72
impossible to decipher how advertisement revenues are delineated. Graph L shows why
CNN makes more revenue than the other two major cable news affiliates.99 As Steve
Rendall says, “If you're looking for an image-oriented product – a BMW, Mercedes, Lexus –
it's not even a question, you advertise with CNN.”100 CNN's advertising revenues
constitutes a significant portion of their revenue, as CNN can still demand the highest ad
rates out of all three of the major cable news affiliates.
The other source of income for CNN is contractual subscriber revenue agreements
that CNN enters into which specific cable providers. Both parties agree upon a negotiated
price whereupon CNN agrees to allow their television broadcasts to be broadcast on that
cable news provider. The actual money that CNN receives from consumers is is minuscule
and very difficult to estimate. Once consumers pay their cable bill, the cable providers pays
the agreed amount to CNN, regardless of whether the consumer even consumed
CNN.101
Graph M shows how this system works.102 For the year 2007, for example, CNN
negotiated a fee 45 cents per subscriber. Therefore, CNN was paid not by its consumers,
but rather by Comcast subscribers, which in terms of numbers are greater than CNN
consumers. Therefore, when every Comcast subscriber pays his/her Comcast bill, 45 cents
of that bill goes to CNN. This amount is not contingent upon whether that particular
99 See Graph L (attached).
100Rendall, Steve. "The Ratings Mirage." Extra! Mar.-Apr. 2004. 8 Apr. 2008
<http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=2005&printer_friendly=1.html>.
101 Cable News Programming Expenses 2007. Project for Excellence in Journalism. Washington DC:
Journalism.Org, 2005. 7 Apr. 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/2008/narrative_cabletv_economics.php?cat=3&media=7#3
102 See Graph M (attached).
73
consumer watches CNN. Rather, it is based on the contractual agreement between Comcast
and CNN.
Determining the reciprocal relationship in this context becomes increasingly complex
for several reasons. For one, a third party—the cable provider—interrupts the reciprocity.
Because the cable provider is the intermediary between the consumer and CNN, it is
difficult to know which of these consumers use the CNN services they pay for. CNN
charges the same amount to every Comcast customer, so it is impossible to know whether
these consumers watch CNN or not, as they are all paying the same amount to have CNN.
Second, reciprocity does not occur at the same level for all CNN consumers.
Reciprocity is measured in different amounts, depending partly upon the frequency with
which consumers watch CNN. The logic here is that the more frequently consumers watch
and participate in CNN, the more likely they are to develop a strong reciprocal relationship
with CNN. CNN consumers that watch CNN infrequently are less likely to develop
reciprocity with CNN. The fact that reciprocity is subjective and measured in levels makes it
increasingly difficult to quantify.
Third, the nature of reciprocity lends itself to a relationship between two parties. If
the monetary exchange were directly between CNN and its consumers, the reciprocal nature
of the relationship would be much easier to determine. However, the entrance of a third
party into the relationship diminished the ability to measure the reciprocal relationship
between CNN and its consumers at the individual level.
While reciprocity cannot be measured at the individual level, this does not mean that
it cannot be determined at the macro level. The type of reciprocity that exists between CNN
74
and consumers is explained below.
Group Gain Reciprocity
The type of reciprocity that exists between CNN and its consumers is group gain
reciprocity. This type of reciprocity places the benefits of a reciprocal relationship in a
common pool. Consumers then take what they need from the common pool and contribute
back where and when it is possible.103
Group gain reciprocity is demonstrated in the relationship between CNN and its
consumers as follows. CNN places all of the benefits it can offer into a common pool so
that consumers can choose whether/when and how often they want to consume CNN.
Further, if CNN consumers choose to interact with CNN, they are contributing back to the
common pool, as these interactions between CNN and the consumer not only benefit CNN
but other consumers of CNN as well.
Consumers benefit from better programming and increased outlets for interaction
regardless of how often consumers turn to CNN for their need gratification. They can
consume the news whenever/wherever they like, as often as they like, and if they so choose,
can also interact with CNN.
As in the model described above, this type of reciprocity makes the reciprocal
relationship interdependent on consumer gratification of needs. For example, CNN offers
better programming to all consumers and however often consumers choose to take
advantage of it depends on how much CNN gratifies their needs. If consumers are gratified
103Cropanzano, Russell, and Marie S. Mitchell. "Social Exchange Theory: an Interdisciplinary Review."
Journal of Management 31 (2005). SagePub. Georgetown University, Washington DC. 11 Feb. 2008.
Keyword: Trust reciprocity.
75
by watching one hour of CNN every month, CNN offers this possibility to facilitate greater
need gratification. However, if consumers are gratified by contributing to CNN and being
interactive with it, CNN offers this possibility as well. Thus, this type of reciprocity caters to
a much wider audience and while the exact level of reciprocity is unknown because it is
determined in the aggregate, there is a clearly some type of reciprocity occurring between
consumers and CNN.
Of course, we need to mention the other side of the coin. A reciprocal relationship
can be said not to exist insofar as CNN takes money from consumers that do not actively
consume CNN. For example, Graph N shows that the majority of survey respondents do
not watch CNN often enough to establish any kind of reciprocity with CNN, yet CNN is
still making money from these consumers.104 On the other hand, a almost 14% of survey
respondents view CNN several times a day. Moreover, 20% of survey respondents view
CNN once a day. These survey respondents are the most likely to interact with CNN,
whether through the submission of iReports or traditional outlets of interaction like call-in
segments or viewer Q & A.105
This correspondence suggests that a reciprocal relationship exists between these
consumers. While the same level of reciprocity does not exist for once a week viewers, less
frequent CNN consumers still share a type of reciprocity with CNN, albeit not as strong a
reciprocity as viewers who frequent CNN more for their need gratification. Keep in mind
also that opportunities for increased interaction, though the submission of iReports and
104 See Graph N (attached).
105 Ibid.
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participation on the typical newscast, are examples of the reciprocal relationship. CNN not
only encourages consumers to participate in whatever ways suit them, but they also sets aside
funding to allow for 'better' programming and increased outlets for consumer need
gratification.
The measures of the variables laid out in the model suggest that the hypothesis holds
true. Now let us look at the results of the survey data in light of the hypothesis.
Survey Data Analysis
Surveys containing questions regarding consumer trust of traditional television news
versus iReporting were disseminated to a convenience sample with random respondents.
Appendix D shows the demographics of the survey respondents and the average responses
to questions on the survey.106 The overall findings are attached in the T-test preformed,
Exhibit One. A T-test is an SPSS analytical tool that allows the user to contrast different in
aspects of consumer trust between iReporting and traditional television news broadcasts.107
The T-test presented on page two in Exhibit One compares the means of Questions 11 & 7
in the respondent survey. These questions referred to the 'quality' aspect of consumer trust
in television news. These questions also contrast the differences in the quality of iReports
vs. the quality of the traditional news broadcast on CNN. Quality in this context refers to
comprehensibility and presentation of both types of news formats.108
The results for this question are not alarming. Results revealed an overwhelming and
statistically significant preference to the comprehensibility and presentation of traditional
106 See Appendix D – Summary Responses (attached).
107 See Exhibit One (attached).
108 See Appendix E – Sample Survey (attached).
77
news broadcasts over iReports.109
In examining Appendix D, the response summary shows the breakdown for both of
these questions. 47% of the survey respondents responded that they trusted iReporting “a
little.” In contrast, 18% of the survey respondents said they trusted the traditional newscast
“a little.” This difference of 29% is highly telling of the level of trust consumers place in the
quality of the traditional television newscast over iReports. It shows that a majority of the
survey respondents do not necessarily trust the quality of iReports and that a small
percentage also do not trust the quality of the traditional news report. The difference
illustrated here is that there is an increased tendency to distrust the quality of iReports over
the quality of the traditional television news broadcast.
The results reveal that the nature of iReporting plays a role in consumers' declining
trust of it over traditional news broadcasts. iReporting is news footage shot from a
cellphone or other mobile device. It is unedited and is presented unprofessionally. These
facets of iReporting are in stark contrast to traditional news reports, which are not only
edited, but also show news correspondents that are broadcasting the news behind a desk
with fact-sheets and making eye contact with consumers. This level of interpersonal
interaction may be more convincing for television audiences than iReports, which are sloppy
and do not offer viewing audiences any level of interpersonal interaction.
The discrepancy between these two mediums in quality credibility levels is promising
for iReporting. It shows that consumers do not entirely mistrust this form of news. This
conclusion is consistent with the increase in iReports on mainstream news stations. Most
109 See Exhibit One – T-Test # 2 (attached).
78
interestingly, the data reveals that consumers trust the presentation of iReports. This fact is
extremely interesting, in that the presentation of iReports is not as professional as that of the
traditional television newscast. However, consumers are more inclined to overlook the lack
of professionalism for the comprehensibility of the report itself.
The next set of T-tests contrasts questions 12 & 8 on the sample survey. These
questions reference the 'content' aspect of consumer trust in television news. These
questions contrast the level of consumer trust of the content of the content of traditional
news stories vs. iReports. Content, in this context, is defined as the variation of traditional
news topics vs. variation of video and photo feeds sent in by consumers to news outlets.110
The results derived from the survey analysis are certainly telling of the value consumers place
in the content of news. There is a statistically significant difference in means between
consumer trust in the content of iReports vs. the content of traditional news segments.111
In examining Appendix D, 35% of survey respondents said they trusted the content
of iReports “somewhat.” In contrast, 58% of survey respondents said they trusted the
content of traditional CNN television news reports “somewhat.” This difference of 25% is
significantly higher than the discrepancy that existed in consumer trust of the quality of both
visual mediums. The greater difference illustrates that survey respondents value the content
of television news more significantly in one medium than the other.
The difference of 25% reveals that there is a difference between the level of trust
consumers invest in the content of iReports and traditional television newscasts. In
110 See Appendix E – Sample Survey (attached).
111 See Exhibit One – T-test #3 (attached).
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addition, with respect to question three, consumers said that in terms of the different
aspects of television news, content of the news story was what they trusted the most. This
finding further bolsters the finding that content of traditional newscasts are significantly
more trusted than content of iReports. 112
Part of the reason for a mistrust of iReporting in comparison to traditional television
news segments has to do with the correlation between content credibility and source
credibility. If consumers do not know where the iReport is coming from, consumers are less
likely to trust the content of the iReport. Source and content credibility are inextricably
linked, so in order to further examine content credibility, we must examine it in conjunction
with source credibility.
Consumer trust of the source of news is addressed in questions 13 & 9 of the survey.
In the survey, the sources for iReporting are put in contrast for the sources for traditional
television news segments. In this context, source is defined as knowledge production from
consumers vs. reporters, or iReports vs. traditional news.113
As demonstrated in the findings, there is a statistically significant difference in the
level of consumer trust in source of traditional news reports and iReports. Consumers
overwhelmingly trust the knowledge production from reporters over consumers. The mean
difference is almost 8%, revealing a significant majority trusts the source of traditional news
reports over iReports.
In correlation with the level of trust consumers have for the content of news, the
112 See Appendix D – Summary Responses (attached).
113 See Exhibit One – T-Test #4 (attached).
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mean differences between source and content of iReports vs. traditional newscasts are
almost equal. These mean differences show that consumers are just as likely to distrust the
content and the source of the iReport than the content and source of traditional newscasts.
The notion that the source of iReporting is less trusted than traditional news reports
is supported in the summary responses. Almost 50% of survey respondents said they
trusted the source for iReports “a little.” In contrast, 16% of survey respondents said they
trusted the sources for traditional news reports “a little.” The difference of almost 35% is
startling, in that it seems that consumers trust the source of iReports and traditional
newscasts the most, out of all the measured aspects of trust.114
The above finding reveals several interesting aspects about the present and future of
iReporting. Presently, almost ½ of the survey respondents are skeptical about the source of
iReporting, meaning that the majority of the sample population is skeptical about the source
of consumer driven news over sources from traditional news outlets. The conclusion can
thus be drawn that, for this sample population, consumers are more skeptical of using the
user-based technologies to create news than the traditional news format.115
The growing importance of source credibility can be explained from a historical
viewpoint. As increased choices for need gratification became available to consumers, a
solid two-way relationship between the medium and the consumer began to emerge.
However, consumers were skeptical of the up-and-coming news outlets and only established
relationships with the ones that met their specific needs. As this number of relationships
114 See Appendix D – Summary responses (attached).
115 Ibid.
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differed among consumers, consumers turned to specific news outlets for news and
remained skeptical of other sources of information.
It is clear from the above findings that the source of the iReport is a major hurdle
that iReporting must overcome in order to be trusted by the general public. Consumers are
not ready to trust each other as the sole outlet for information, but would rather trust
professional sources for news, i.e. journalists and news correspondents. However, as
iReports enter further into the mainstream, it is likely that consumers will begin to develop
source credibility with fellow consumers.
The first set of paired sample statistics contrasts Questions 2 & 5 on the survey
about consumer's overall trust of traditional television news broadcasts and iReporting.116
As revealed by the T-test, consumers’ overall level of trust is higher with the traditional
television newscast than the iReport. This finding was somewhat expected, in that
consumers would probably be more likely to trust the traditional broadcasts they have
historically viewed more than an up-and-coming technology that is still in its natal stages.117
In surveying the summary responses, 43% of the survey respondents said they
trusted iReporting “a little.” In contrast, almost 25% of survey respondents said they trusted
the traditional television news outlet “a little.” This 17% difference is quite telling, in that it
is not as significant as the differences in the various aspects of trust surveyed. Overall trust
for iReporting and the traditional television news outlet are both relatively low, revealing a
promising outcome for iReporting as it grows in popularity and consumers begin trusting the
116 See Appendix E – Sample Survey (attached).
117 See Exhibit One – T-test #1 (attached).
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source of iReports
Furthermore, ¼ of all survey respondents that they only trusted the traditional
television newscast “a little,” which is highly significant for where the newscast has come
and where it is going. One correlation that can be drawn is that other forms of need
gratification are more widely used and therefore more trusted by consumers.118
It is also interesting to note that because consumers trust traditional broadcasts more
than iReporting, consumers may also be less likely to trust forms of citizen journalism than
established news correspondents and professionals. Although a causal link cannot be drawn,
it might be correlated to consumers' recognition of authority and professionalism over
amateur creations of news and commentary based on opinion, rather than fact.
Further analysis of control variables
As stated previously in this thesis, the variables of age, gender and income level (via
professional status) are control variables for the analysis. Out of the 240 respondents,
almost 70% of survey respondents were non-students. Also, close to 60% of survey
respondents were female. The age of survey respondents ranged from 18 – 70.119
In order to conduct a thorough analysis of the survey questions, isolating all of these
control variables, I ran a linear regression of the survey data analysis using SPSS. This
analysis is attached as Exhibit Two.120 This regression includes the control variables as
constants in the data and each control variable's statistical significance for each of the survey
questions regarding the contrast between iReports and traditional television news.
118 See Appendix D – Summary responses (attached).
119 Ibid.
120 See Exhibit Two (attached).
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The results of this regression were startling. The presumption entering into the
analysis was that younger survey respondents would have been more likely to trust aspects of
iReports than older survey respondents. The logic being that younger viewers are more
technologically savvy and may understand the significance of iReports more than older
viewers who have traditionally always trusted professionally generated news. However, the
data revealed the opposite. As can be seen from the analysis, there were only a handful of
questions that revealed statistically significant results. One question that yielded statistically
significant results was Question #5 or Test #2.121 Question #5 alluded to the overall trust
consumers invest in iReports. The age control is statistically significant. However, the Beta
is negative, indicating an inverse relationship. This means that older viewers of CNN are
more likely to trust iReporting than younger viewers. Older, in this context, is defined as
survey respondents 31 – 50. Younger, in this context, is defined as survey respondents 18 –
30. This finding is extremely noteworthy in that it reveals that older viewers are not as
bound to the traditional television newscast as had been previously thought. Older
consumers are becoming more engaged in their need gratification and as a result, are not
only consuming iReports but interacting with the television news medium as well.
In accordance with the model, if older consumers trust iReports, it means that older
consumers are also becoming more interactive with their television news medium. This
increase in interactivity from older consumers could be correlated to the fact that older
consumer generally consume television news more actively than younger consumers. It is
highly telling, however, that older consumers trust iReporting more than younger
121 See Exhibit Two – Test #2 (attached).
84
consumers. It reveals that older consumers are becoming more technologically savvy and
proactive in the creation of the news they want to consume.
The next test that is statistically significant relates to Test #3 or Question #7 on the
survey. This question is regarding the content of iReports. The test shows statistical
significance and an inverse relationship. This means that older survey respondents are more
likely to trust the content of iReports than younger survey respondents.122 It is interesting to
note that the content of iReports is more significant to older survey respondents than the
source of iReports. In contrast to Test #4, which was not statistically significant, the
content of the iReport is statistically significant for older consumers, providing the following
relationship: source credibility matters for younger consumers, but content credibility
matters for older consumers.
This reveals a very important finding; while on the whole, source credibility is most
important for all survey respondents, when broken down by age, content credibility matters
more to older than younger consumers. The importance of content credibility to older
consumers reveals the strong link between content and source credibility, in that both were
found to be important to consumers, but in different ways.
The importance of content credibility to older consumers is also consistent with the
fact that for younger consumers, source credibility holds more credence. Younger
consumers derive need gratification, and eventually trust, more from where the information
comes from than the content of the information itself. Older consumers, on the other hand,
derive need gratification, and eventually trust, more from the substance of the information
122 See Exhibit Two – Test #3 (attached).
85
than where it originated.
Popular belief would lead us to believe the opposite to be true. However, this
finding is very telling for how consumer-based technologies are affecting not only youth, but
also older generations. Older generations trust the content of iReporting because in general,
they trust the contents of the news footage. Contents of news footage constitute a larger
part of their perceptions of trust than the other indicators of trust included in the analysis, as
revealed in Test #3.123 While the conclusion cannot be definitively drawn that younger
consumers do not at all care about the content of iReports or the traditional news story, it is
clear that for younger consumers, source of news footage constitutes a larger part of their
trust perception than other indicators of trust included in the analysis.
The next test that is statistically significant is Test #5 or Question #9 on the survey.
This questions reads: How much do you trust citizen journalists? This is the most
statistically significant finding out of the entire regression. At the .02 level it is also an
inverse relationship. The finding reveals that older survey respondents trust citizen journalists
more than younger survey respondents. In this context, citizen journalists include everyday
citizens that use user-based technologies to disseminate news. Note that this question is not
limited to iReporters but also includes citizen journalists in different news formats.124
This finding is interesting finding for several reasons. One, it correlates directly to
the previous test. If older consumers derive more need gratification from the content of
user-generated news than the source of user-generated news, older consumers would be
123 See Exhibit Two – Test #3 (attached).
124 See Exhibit Two – Test #5 (attached).
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more likely to trust citizen journalists. As source credibility is not as important as the
content of the story itself, it would not matter where the story came from, so long as the
consumer deemed the story itself trustworthy.
Another interesting finding associated with older consumers' increased trust of
citizen journalists is that older consumers are active not only with the television news media,
but also other forms of need gratification. They are also likely to trust the content of blogs
and other interactive forms of need gratification.
The only control variable revealing statistically significant results was the age control.
This means that gender and income did not play a role in survey respondents' derivation of
trust.
Correlations between increased interaction and trust of iReporting
When conducting the regression between the frequency that survey respondents
watch CNN and their likelihood of trusting iReporting, an inverse relationship was found.
This means that consumers who watch CNN less frequently, once a week or month for
example, are more inclined to trust iReporting than consumers who watch CNN multiple
times a day.125 This finding reveals several facets about the relationship between CNN and
its consumers.
First, the enhanced interactivity consumers share with CNN is only applicable to a
small portion of the general CNN consuming audience. Thus, while consumers that submit
iReports to CNN can feel an intensified connection with CNN, this is a small population of
the CNN television watching audience. It shows that iReporting has not entered the
125 See Exhibit Three.
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mainstream enough for more users to be engaged with the technology. Furthermore, it also
shows that consumers, on the whole, preferred to engage with CNN via traditional channels
such as browsing CNN's website, engaging in polls online and call-in segments on-the-air.
Another important aspect of this finding is that consumers who do not frequent
CNN often give credence to the iReports submitted by fellow consumers and value the
added level of exchange between consumers that submit iReports and CNN. This suggests
that consumers are not as 'interactive' with CNN value the fact that other consumers take
advantage of these avenues for increased interaction. As a result, consumers that frequent
CNN less often trust iReporting, as it is a product of the enhanced interaction between
CNN and a niche audience that is increasingly interactive with CNN.
However, the that consumers who watch CNN less frequently are more willing to
trust user-generated reports submitted to CNN says something the larger context of citizen
journalism. From the above finding, we can deduce that consumers who watch CNN less
frequently are more willing to trust news generated by their fellow man/woman. Consumers
that watch CNN more frequently are watching CNN for other purposes than its iReports or
citizen activity.
One reason that CNN consumers who watch CNN more may trust iReporting less is
that these consumers are more exposed to the technology and more knowledgeable about its
shortcomings, so they may be further inclined to distrust it. Moreover, consumers that are
more interactive with CNN are not the audience that continually praises CNN. While some
of these consumers do contribute iReports to CNN, others may interact with CNN in a
more critical way, critiquing its legitimacy.
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One shortcoming to this data research is that frequency of how often CNN is
viewed may not be a good indicator for consumer interactivity with CNN. As iReporting
becomes more popular with the general public, it will be interesting to see correlations of the
frequency of how often iReporters consume. This finding reveals that perhaps iReport
submissions are not limited to those consumers that are highly interactive with CNN.
Chapter 6: Conclusion
The Pew Center states the findings of this thesis most clearly and concisely:
“Nothing occurred in 2007 to change the now deep impression that Americans have
formed that the press is an institution of immense power that should be viewed with
suspicion. And looking ahead, the even more skeptical view of the Internet audience,
and the problems and cutbacks facing the profession, offer a grim forecast that this
might somehow quickly change. However, despite what some might think, the
view of the press heading into 2008 has in many ways become stable.”126
It is no secret that consumers have been highly skeptical of the television news
media. However, particularly in this day in age, where information is endless and sources
cannot be adequately tracked, consumers are in a higher stage of alert than ever. As a result,
new user-based technologies do not adequately sway the public’s belief in its legitimacy
simply because consumers are distrustful of everything at the current moment.
Public skepticism accounts for the first major conclusion of this thesis. As revealed
in the content analysis of CNN, iReporting has become increasingly popular over the years.
There were several accounts of iReporting in the years 2007 and 2008 and this number
126The State of the News Media. Pew Research Center. Washington DC: Journalism.Org, 2007. 9 Apr.
2008. <http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.org/2008/narrative_special_attitudes.php?cat=1&media=13>.
89
appears to be growing. However, simply because iReporting is popular, does not mean that
consumers trust it. iReports challenge news outlets to continue changing their format to
better serve consumer needs for information, entertainment and interaction. But at this
particular point in history, iReporting is not perceived as a trustworthy form of news because
consumers are highly judgmental and skeptical of all information and its sources.
Furthermore, there has been a downward trend recently in cable television audiences
and their trust of the television news. Thus consumers may not trust CNN because they do
not trust any form of news. The overall level of trust has declined in recent years and as a
result, television consuming audiences are less likely to trust any information, whether it is
CNN or not.
This thesis also draws upon the importance of source credibility of consumer trust
for both iReporting and the traditional television news format. The results for both the
statistical analysis and summary responses of the survey data show that the source of news
originates plays a crucial role in whether consumers decide to trust it. Consumers are more
likely to trust news when they can attribute the source of the news to a professional rather
than a fellow consumer. This thesis shows the increased importance source credibility has
amassed as more citizens become interactive with the television news media and as this
interactivity shapes consumer perceptions of credibility in the news.
An interesting topic for further research would be how source credibility is
established with consumers. In the context of content and quality credibility, it is the most
important, but does this hold true with other forms of credibility or trust? For example,
blogging is becoming an increasingly popular method of information dissemination. These
90
sources are also unknown. Consumers use a pseudonym and even false images of
themselves to represent their ideas. Do consumers trust these sources of information and
discussion as well? An interesting opportunity for further research would be to contrast
consumer trust in blogging with consumer trust of iReports, as this would reveal the
importance of source credibility in the determination of consumer trust in different
mediums.
This thesis draws several conclusions and recommendations for further research that
could be conducted in the area of citizen journalism and its role in the mass media. One of
the primary findings in this research is that reciprocity in trust relationships are tantamount.
Without reciprocity, consumers are less likely to trust a particular news outlet because they
feel as if they were not receiving an equal contribution on the part of the news media. The
level of reciprocity, however, is what merits further examination. What level of reciprocity is
needed to facilitate an increased trust between CNN and its consumers?
Increased interaction with the television news media is certainly correlated to
increased consumer trust of that medium, but what remains unclear is exactly what role
interaction plays in the formation of increased trust. It is possible that the role of consumer
interaction may have been given too much importance in this analysis. The data reveals that
consumers that consume CNN less trust interactive technologies more. Although logic
would dictate that the opposite is true, it is possible that because consumers who have less
exposure to iReporting, due to the fact that they consume less CNN, will trust iReporting
because of their propensity to trust news generated by his/her fellow man/woman.
Whereas, consumers immersed in the technology may be more skeptical of it or consume
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CNN more for different types of need gratification. Because this niche of consumers is
already interactive with CNN, it is very possible that they may have other motives for
consuming CNN than enhanced interactivity with the news station.
Shortcomings of the Research and Possibilities for further research
One of the shortcomings of this research is the indicators used to measure consumer
gratification. Nielsen ratings are a poor indicator for consumer repeatability to a particular
news station, but rather measure the overall consumer need gratification. The way that the
ratings are captured and calculated are flawed, and this may have skewed the research by
showing inaccurate levels of need gratification.
Another shortcoming in this research is that measuring reciprocity on the micro level
between individual consumers and CNN is nearly impossible. Due to the way CNN makes
its revenue and the nature of the licensing agreements it enters into with cable providers, it is
impossible to know which subscribers of these cable providers consume CNN. Further,
even if this data were known, trying to decipher how long these consumers watched CNN
would require even further analysis into CNN's consumer base. Because of the time and
resource constraints, performing this type of analysis was not possible.
The most striking finding referenced in the data analysis section is that age plays a
role in the level of trust people invest in their television news. Older consumers have an
overall tendency to trust iReporting more than younger consumers. This finding is contrary
to what might be expected in an age where younger consumers have the agency and
knowledge to use interactive technologies to communicate with the television news media in
creative and insightful ways. However, this finding reveals that the older generations are
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more drawn to the content of the news story, rather than the source of the news story.
Since source is one the main reasons to discredit the iReport, this holds less importance for
older generations, leading to an increased trust in the content of iReports.
Another finding is that consumers who consume less CNN tend to trust the citizen
journalist more than corporate broadcast news. While these consumers may not be involved
in the niche audiences that iReports target, they place value and credence into the fact that
iReports can be submitted. The consumers consuming less CNN also value the discourse
that iReporters are having with CNN, and the fact that these increased outlets for consumer
interaction are being used by fellow consumers.
An interesting topic for further research would be to further explore the gradations
of consumer interactivity and their relations to consumer trust. What exactly constitutes an
interactive consumer? One mistake I may have made is putting iReporters at the top of that
list. However, iReporting is only interactive between the iReporter and CNN. While others
certainly benefit from the iReport, the interactivity is confined to iReporters and CNN.
Further, how interactive do consumers have to be in order to trust CNN?
My speculation is that consumers that do not even watch CNN can and have
submitted iReports to CNN. This conclusion refutes the idea that the more consumers
watch CNN, the more interactive he/she is with CNN. Thus, perhaps the frequency of how
often consumers watch CNN is not a good indicator of how interactive consumers are with
CNN. If it is possible, further research could be specifically targeting iReporters and
analyzing how often they watch CNN, as this would reveal whether a correlation between
these two indicators even exists.
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The underground movements for citizen activism offer promise for iReporting.
Citizen journalism is a powerful force in modern media with the popularity of blogs, chat
rooms and virtual discussion forums about various topics. The proliferation of iReporting
will only support this movement of giving citizens increased agency and choice in their
consumption of any form of news.
Moreover, it is very possible that the mistrust of iReporting will shift as iReporting
becomes more mainstream and integrated into the typical newscast. As revealed in the
content analysis and elsewhere in this thesis, the inception of iReporting began in 2005 but
did not really catch on until 2007. A record 23 iReports were witnessed in that very year and
even more surprisingly, 3 iReports were witnessed in the year 2008, when only 3 months
worth of content analysis could be performed.
These finding are telling for the future of iReporting, in that iReports are finding
their way into daily news. iReports are not only being used for breaking stories, but are also
giving us a glimpse into the everyday life of an average consumer. It would be very
interesting to conduct similar research about iReporting when iReports have become more
mainstream and more prevalent in the format of television news. To examine the consumer
reception of iReporting after they have penetrated the market a bit further would probably
yield different results than arrived at in this thesis.
It is very possible that the timing of this thesis was simply too early. As iReports
have had their explosion in 2007 and are just beginning to work their way into the
mainstream, this thesis may have simply been preemptive in emphasizing the inception of
iReporting, rather than examining the technology when it had become more prevalent and
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more consumers knew how to properly use it. Since this appears to have occurred in 2007,
the research may be foreshadowing the greater use and trust of iReporting that is to come.
Another interesting topic for future research relates to contrast the popularity of
blogging and citizen activism against that of iReporting and examine what makes that
particular form of citizen activism more popular or noteworthy.
Likewise, it would be fruitful to conduct a similar research project after the inception
of HD television in every household. Will HD increase the number of television news
outlets available to consumers, and if so, by how much? How will this increase, in turn,
affect consumer need gratification with the television news medium? Will HD also for
increased interactivity with the news media, allowing consumers to submit more iReports
and be more actively involved with the production of their own news?
Most useful in terms of future research would be a paper using the same model but
examining a different case study, namely Fox News. A rough examination of Fox news
shows that Fox consumers have increased interaction with the television news media, via
their “UReport.” Fox maintains a reciprocal relationship with their consumers in the
equality of their subscriber revenues and programming expenses. While I cannot speak to
the interactivity that exists on Fox news outlets, Nielsen ratings show that consumers of Fox
News are certainly gratified by the media, as they are number one in the ratings and have
been since 2006. It would be very interesting to determine whether there is increased
consumer trust in Fox News with the other measures in the model being met.
Suggestions to CNN
I believe the results of this study leads logically to a number of recommendations to
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CNN, which would also be of interest to its competing news networks. The most important
one is that CNN should offer more benefits to the consumers that are more interactive with
the news media. The current group gain reciprocity CNN has with its consumers offers the
same benefits to all consumers, regardless of how often they consumes CNN. This steady
rate offers to additional benefits to CNN consumers who are increasingly interactive with
CNN and engage in the submission of iReports or in the traditional television newscast.
These consumers should receive some type of extra reward, such as paying less for CNN for
example, than consumers who watch CNN once a month or less. For example, CNN might
enter into a different type of licensing agreement, where it negotiates two different rates: one
for every consumer and one for consumers who consume CNN x number of hours per
week. This new arrangement would also entice viewers to be more interactive with CNN
and to participate with the newscast, leading to increased transparency and better consumer
need gratification.
Another idea to benefit the consumers that interact frequently with CNN is to set
aside participant funding vs. general funding. For example, if 60% of CNN’s revenue were
set aside for better programming, perhaps 10% of that 60% could be dedicated to offering
additional benefits to the consumers that actively participate with CNN. This specific
allocation would result in increased interaction with the consumers that are already
interactive with CNN, and perhaps induce other consumers to get involved with the
newscast as well.
Although all of these ideas certainly need refinement, CNN should reward the
consumers that participate in their newscasts, as these consumers contribute more and
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therefore deserve something extra from their reciprocal relationship with CNN.
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104
Appendix B: Interactivity Criteria
Number of call-in segments per newscast
Number of face-to-face interviews with civilians on-the-air
Number of viewer emails read on the air
Number of references (by newscaster) to participate in said newscast
Number of references to CNN website
Listing of Iraq casualties count for one count of interaction, even though not
interview or call-in
Number of video submissions to CNN
Number of viewer questions answered on-the-air
Number of viewer blogs read on-the-air
Interviews with experts, but only if they were professors at academic institutions
Doctors, correspondents and other experts are not included in the interactivity
criteria
**iReports categorized in a separate category as higher form of interaction than via
traditional means of interaction (listed above)**
105
Appendix C: Content Analysis of CNN from 2001 – 2008
Bullet points indicate headline story
All stories bolded indicate interaction with consumer
September 11 has ½ day coverage – all coverage broken down by the hour
9/11/01 8am - 9am
interview with witness: Jeanne Yurman
repeat footage of Twin Tower on fire
interview with eyewitness: Winston Mitchell
plane crash into building #2 – photos from news chopper
interview with eyewitness
speculation: terrorist attack?
Decipher that plane deliberately crash into tower
interview with NTSB spokesman
interview with eyewitness
interviews with workers at WTC
Bush scheduled to address nation at 8.30
Review sequence of events
Correspondents question why FEMA not more prepared
Speculation as to the number of injuries
Reports of the Pentagon on fire
Senator Ted Kennedy speaks on attacks
White House has been evacuated
Speculation on fire on Capitol Mall
First reports of plane crash into Pentagon
Speculation to culprit – Osama Bin Laden?
5 counts of consumer interaction
9/11/01 9am – 10am
Sears Tower evacuation
nd
2 WTC Tower collapse
interview with Fmr. Deputy Mayor of NYC
Speculation on explosion at Capitol Hill
eyewitness interview with pilot
eyewitness interview with Barbara at Pentagon
Confirmed: plane crash at Pentagon
106
Video footage from Ground Zero
1st WTC Tower collapse
Speculation of car bomb explosion at the State Dept?
Interview with NYC Fmr. Police Chief
First report of plane crash in Pennsylvania
All Federal Buildings evacuated
Speculation of two hijacked planes at Pentagon?
2 counts of consumer interactions
9/11/01 10am – 11am
Headline in tomorrow paper: America under Attack
Mayor Guilliani press conference
nd
2 plane at Pentagon speculation denied
interviews with workers at WTC
interview with other news correspondents
speculation about culprits/blame
Confirmed: Flight 11 (AA) from Boston to Los Angeles and Flight 77 (AA) from
Dulles to Los Angeles are two planes involved
United Airlines flight confirmed down in Pennsylvania
CDC prepare bioterrorism teams for precautions
interview with Fmr. Military General Wesley Clark
United Flight #2 in jeopardy?
First mention of Jihad – US policy in Middle East
Statement from Logan Airport – no flights confirmed
Interview with author Tom Clancy
United Airlines flight 175 confirmed crashed
1 count of consumer interaction
9/11/01 11am – 12pm
US/Mexico border sealed
interview with Governor Pataki (NYC)
Colin Powell rush back from Peru to the States
Blood shortage in DC
NYC begins evacuating – all lower Manhattan evacuated
eyewitness interview: Ilene
US/Canada border sealed
interview with Mayor Rudy Guilliani (NYC)
President Bush is not returning to DC – Air Force One has been diverted
interview with Sen. Orrin Hatch
interview with Sen. John McCain
video footage of plane crash United flight 93 in Pennsylvania – no survivors
Taliban news conference via videophone
107
1 count of consumer interaction
9/11/01 12pm – 1pm
Warning from US to Bin Laden
President Bush makes a statement
CNN terrorism analyst
interview with Sen. Sam Berger
interview with Fmr. US Envoy
“all other commercial flights accounted for” says FAA
eyewitness interview: William Rodrieguez
eyewitness interview: Matt Cornelieus
Seattle space needle shut down
eyewitness interview: Tim Timmerman – AA flight crash into Pentagon
interview with Sen. Chris Dodd
interview with Henry Kissinger
3 counts of consumer interaction
9/11/01 1pm – 2pm
Pentagon briefing
CNN footage: people leave NYC for NJ
interview with Red Cross
track flight plan
passenger calls from flight United 93 about hijacking
DC hospitals report 53 injuries
Guilliani press conference
15000 wounded evacuated from rubble, 600 being treated
Normalcy, caution to stay calm
FAA announce: all commercial flights canceled until 12pm next day
0 counts of consumer interaction
9/11/01 2pm – 3pm
interview with Fmr. Secretary of State
US should not be afraid to preempt terrorist attacks
video footage of Ground Zero
eyewitness interviewed
still photos shown of UA 175 flight hitting Tower #2
Palestinians celebrate in the street
Speculation to links to Osama Bin Laden
1 count of consumer interactions
9/25/01 6pm – 7pm
Target Terrorism
108
Pentagon call for 2000 more reserves
Senate approve military base closing
CNN correspondent discuss coalition building
CNN correspondent discuss name: Operation Enduring Freedom
Rumsfeld press conference
CNN correspondent from Pakistan
EU visit Pakistan
Saudi Arabia and UAE cut ties with Taliban
CNN correspondent from Afghanistan
CNN correspondent discuss alliance between US and Russia
Is Iraq a new battlefront for terrorism?
CNN correspondent from Iraq
Is chemical or biological warfare inevitable?
Interview with Fmr. Counter terrorism official
Viewer emails read
interview with air pilots re: state of emergency
2 counts of consumer interaction
10/8/01 7pm – 8pm
mentally ill child try to enter cockpit of plane
FAA: only one carry on bag per customer
nd
CNN correspondent report on 2 day of air strikes in Afghanistan
CNN correspondent report from Pakistan
CNN correspondent report from State Dept
interview with Director of Homeland Security
CNN analyst report of progress of air strikes
CNN correspondent report from Kabul, Afghanistan
CNN correspondent report from Florida re: Anthrax
blast resistant windows installed at Capitol
0 counts of consumer interaction
10/24/01 7pm – 8pm
Anthrax investigation: CNN correspondent in DC
eyewitness interview with postal worker
CNN correspondent from White House – Cipro for anthrax treatment
reference to CNN.com
CNN correspondent from N. Afghanistan
CNN correspondent from Islamabad
CNN correspondent report from Pentagon – should nuclear weapons be used in
Afghanistan?
Interview with Congressman re: nuclear proliferation
solicit viewers to participate in poll
109
weather info with CNN correspondent
3 counts of consumer interaction
11/7/01 9pm – 10pm
Truck chase in Dallas
Bush/Blair team up
CNN correspondent from White House
CNN correspondent comment on financial situation of war
CNN correspondent comment on political stability in Middle East
Bloomberg elected in NYC as new mayor
CNN correspondent report on Israel/Palestine
Anthrax accountability
CNN correspondent report on 9/11 victim call from UA flight
interview with Army officials
Diplomats talk to Taliban about Bin Laden
Arizona beat NY in MLB
0 counts of consumer interaction
11/22/01 9pm – 10pm
Surrender of Ronduez
interview with Anthrax victim
interview with soldier
Thanksgiving Day Parade
10 interviews with attendees of Thanksgiving Day Parade
founder of Mary Kay dies
CNN correspondent report on support of war
interview with 9/11 victim families (10)
22 counts of consumer interaction
12/5/01 9pm – 10pm
US guided bomb kills 3 Americans
ABC correspondent travels with Marines
interview with Ret. Army officials
CNN correspondent report on war front in Afghanistan
CNN correspondent investigate Anthrax
9/11: burial controversy for victims
interview with 9/11 victim's brother
interview with English teacher in Afghanistan
9/11 parallel Pearl Harbor?
Interview with 9/11 family members (3)
5 counts of consumer interaction
110
12/28/01 7pm – 8pm
CNN correspondent from Afghanistan
India/Pakistan relationship: interview with foreign diplomats
0 counts of consumer interaction
1/7/02 9pm – 10pm
Yates murder trial: interview with Yates family members
Bishop suicide
interview with his grade school teacher
CNN correspondent report on economic health of country
Afghanistan: intense air strikes
interview with psychiatrists re: Bishop suicide
Oklahoma bomber profile
What to do with Ground Zero?
Interview with 9/11 widow
interview with aspiring architect of 9/11 memorial
solicitation: email us with your ideas...
5 counts of consumer interaction
1/25/02 9pm - 10pm
CNN correspondent reports on Enron executive death
CNN correspondent interviews techies
Shoe bomber on airplane
interview with Congressman Jeff Sessions
CNN correspondent reports on current prison situation
CNN correspondent reports on Middle East violence
CNN correspondent reports on S. Africa and AIDS epidemic
Pennsylvania bus kidnapping
interview with AA pilot
interview with soldiers in Alaska (3)
4 counts of consumer interaction
2/12/02 9pm – 10pm
Terrorism alert
cast vote for best actress at CNN.com
reporter kidnapped
CNN correspondent report on war crimes trial
CNN correspondent report on Enron scandal
accounting for disappearing act of millions
interview with investment banker
CNN correspondent interview Mussharaf
111
CNN correspondent report on Ice Capades
Go to CNN.com for information on Black History Month
Anthrax
interview with Smithsonian Workers (3)
6 counts of consumer interaction
2/24/02 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on Daniel Pearl murder
CNN correspondent report on whereabouts of Osama Bin Laden
Drug tests at Olympics
interviews with Olympics attendees (2)
Hajj trip to Mecca
CNN correspondent report on Israel/Palestine conflict
TX man charged with attempted murder
Healthcare benefit for 9/11 victims
interview with 9/11 victim's family member
3 counts of consumer interaction
3/8/02 9pm - 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Middle East violence
CNN correspondent report on Afghanistan War
CNN correspondent report on Guantanamo Bay
Iraq War casualties acknowledged
CNN correspondent report on Yates murder trial
CNN correspondent report Freight Operations in Afghanistan
CNN correspondent interview Crawford
Japanese/American internment
Segment 7: interview with victim from Japanese internment camp (2)
3 counts of consumer interaction
3/25/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Middle East conflict
CNN correspondent report on Al Queda
CNN correspondent report on airport security
UA 93 cockpit tape aired
interview with UA 93 victim's family member
CNN correspondents report on sex Abuse/priests
CNN correspondent report on Taliban Legacy
Ground Zero: 6 bodies found, 4 firefighters found in wreckage
interview with victim of abuse from priest
interview with math professor from Barnard College
7 counts of consumer interaction
112
4/6/02 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on Middle East policy
CNN correspondent report on Middle East violence
CNN correspondent report on Afghanistan/Operation Mountain Lion
Cubs Green Monster
interviews with Cubs fans (6)
6 counts of consumer interaction
4/15/02 9pm – 10pm
Middle East/interview with Tarzai
interview with Sen. Mitchell
interview with Newsweek John Hammer
News stories in the Middle East
Osama Bin Laden tape aired
US soldier death
Sex abuse/Priest
Segment 7: interview with chef
1 count of consumer interaction
5/2/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Catholic priest sex scandal
Middle East Peace Summit
Congressional resolutions
AIDS case in South Dakota
interview with citizens of S. Dakota town (4)
Capitol Doom: interview with Congressman
Clinton with his own talk show
Segment 7: interview with Space Tourist
5 counts of consumer interaction
5/20/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
interviews with CNN terrorism analysts
CNN correspondent report on politics/terrorism
Middle East violence
Cuba/US relations
interviews with Cubans living in the US (2)
interview with Mafia leader/author
end of work at Ground Zero
Segment 7: interview with NYPD/FDNY family members (16)
18 counts of consumer interaction
113
5/31/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on nuclear scenarios
CNN correspondent report on Spann death
Shanksville High School Graduation
Sex Abuse/Priest
Maltese Nancy: book review, interview with worker
Segment 7: Soccer Special – interviews with soccer fans (5)
6 counts of consumer interaction
6/18/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on suicide bombing
Smart kidnapping
interview with FBI: Van Zandt
interview with editor regarding Romney candidacy for MA governor
Colorado wildfire
interview with firefighters (7)
earthquake in Midwest
Segment 7: interview with piano prodigy (4)
11 counts of consumer interaction
7/5/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on airport shooting
Gang rape of Pakistani woman
interview with victim/family (3)
President Bush leaves for Presidential tour
Cancer drug not approved by FDA
interview with cancer patients (3)
interview with WSJ journalists
Ted Williams death
6 counts of consumer interaction
7/25/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
interview with Congressman regarding CSR Bill
Pennsylvania coal miners
interview with rescue workers/relatives (2)
CNN correspondent report on Middle East relations
interview with National Catholic reporter
Ted Williams death
interview with NYT reporter regarding corporate ethics
Segment 7: interview with US Communist Party members (4)
114
6 counts of consumer interaction
8/4/02 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on Middle East
CNN correspondent report on Anthrax
bombing at Hebrew University – Jerusalem: 5 Americans die
interview with victim's friends (3)
North Carolina Civil War reenactment
Cougar attack in Canada: interview with men (5)
Coal miner movie
8 counts of consumer interaction
8/22/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Bush policy regarding wildfires
Terrorism update
AL Queda terror tapes
interview with Fayetteville reporter regarding murder
Ohio death penalty: interview from murder victim's family (3)
interview with NYT writer regarding baseball strike
Segment 7: interview with aspiring filmmaker
4 counts of consumer interaction
9/8/02 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on Iraq/US relations
Go to CNN.com for more information
Al Jazeera report
Predator/Spy plane
Faces of Ground Zero: interviews with key players (6)
interview with Bernhard regarding new Fall line-up
US Open updated
7 counts of consumer interaction
9/17/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Iraq/US relations
Butler interview regarding weapons inspections in Iraq
Is marijuana medicine?
Interview with AIDS patients (4)
Yemin tension
Battle at Antietam reenactment
Segment 7: interview with “soldiers” from reenactment (3)
7 counts of consumer interaction
115
10/3/02 9pm – 10pm
MD murder spree
interview with mother/others (4)
Hurricane Lili: interview with residents (3)
UN shooting
CNN correspondent report on coalition
interview with FBI regarding MD murder
interview with American Taliban
interview with Bill Frist regarding NJ election
New England bank robbery
interview with victim's family (5)
Segment 7: interview with lost rock star
14 counts of consumer interaction
10/26/02 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on Iraq/US relations
interview with real estate agent
MN Wellston death
Chechnya rescue effort: interview with hostage
World Series: Little Giants
interview with Giant's manager kids (2)
4 counts of consumer interaction
11/6/02 9pm – 10pm
America votes: election results
Iraq/US relations
DC sniper
Drugs/Terror
Pitt resigns from SEC
CNN correspondent report on election
No fly zones?
Segment 7: interview with photographers (3)
3 counts of consumer interaction
11/21/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Al Queda arrest
Israel/Palestine conflict: interview with victims (4)
Daschle vs. Limbaugh
interview with history professor regarding JFK assassination
missing students in the Midwest
interview with family members (5)
Sexy anchors: interview with consumer
116
11 counts of consumer interaction
12/3/02 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Iraq/US relations
US/Saudi Arabia relations
sex abuse/priests: survivor interview
CNN political analyst
interview with editor regarding golf
Segment 7: interview with Brother's keeper (4)
5 counts of consumer interaction
12/20/02 9pm – 10pm
Lott & Racism: interviews with consumers (2)
Iraq/US relations
Happenings on Wall Street: interviews with Wall Street bankers (2)
State of the Economy
interview with Bob Costas
Holiday Cheer and Wine
4 counts of consumer interaction
1/6/03 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Economy/Deficit Spending
Iraq/US relations: interview with civilians (4)
N. Korea Weapons Program
interview with weapons inspector
Kids trapped in basement in NJ
Interview with Glassman regarding Economy
Word of the Year
Segment 7: interviews with the 'Soul Man' (8)
12 counts of consumer interaction
1/29/03 9pm – 10pm
Iraq/US relations
interview with Time Magazine editor
North Carolina factory explosion: interview with worker
interviews with Pakistani immigrants (7)
interview with TX monthly regarding murder case
“Their” TV
8 counts of consumer interaction
2/10/03 9pm – 10pm
Iraq/US diplomacy
117
Terrorist threat levels
Train soldiers in Kuwait: interview with potential soldiers (2)
CNN analyst discuss war
Segment 7: interview with war veterans/survivors (3)
5 counts of consumer interaction
2/26/03 9pm – 10pm
Iraq/US relations
Columbia Space Shuttle take-off
Nightclub fire in Rhode Island: interview with dancer
interview with Congressman regarding Iraq
WTC site design
interview with author regarding cooking
Segment 7: Blair vs. war protesters (6)
7 counts of consumer interaction
3/2/03 5pm – 6pm
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
Iraq/US relations: interviews with citizens (3)
War Cost: interviews with citizens (3)
interview with CNN war analyst
DC snipers
interview with Dan Rather regarding Saddam
Life on Broadway
The comeback of Ballet
6 counts of consumer interaction
3/17/03 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on US/Iraq relations
interview with Fmr. Military official
UN weapons inspection
interview with Frank Rich
War Talk: panel discussion with CNN correspondents and analysts regarding war
0 counts of consumer interaction
*No CNN newscasts available from 3/30/03 – 4/18/03 in preparation for Iraq War*
4/19/03 5pm – 6pm
Laci Peterson case: interviews with family (5)
Iraq War
Bush Agenda
Iraqi prisoners: interviews with prisoners (2)
118
Satellite TV interviews (2)
Interviews with capturers (2)
Middle East relations
SARS outbreak: interview with victims (2)
AA airlines bonuses (2)
Dark America (4)
Segment 7: interview with artist for Saddam (2)
21 counts of consumer interaction
4/29/03 9pm – 10pm
Middle East: interview with civilian
interview with Ambassador
Fallujah shooting: interview with witness
Iraq War coverage
interview with Surgeon General
Missing boy: interview with family (2)
Segment 7: Outlaw lying -- interview with townspeople (3)
7 counts of consumer interaction
5/17/03 9pm – 10pm
Laci Peterson case
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
Middle East relations
Soldiers' stress (4)
Casablanca bombs
interview with professor regarding implications of stress
new shows on television
India Dowry: interview with Indian girls (3)
interview with “Men Health Magazine”
Les Miserables closes
Last Call call-in question regarding Peterson Case
9 counts of consumer interaction
5/26/03 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent reports on Middle East relations
Iran/US relations
Memorial Day festivities
Louisiana murder: interview with victim's family (4)
UK military controversy
interview with UN ambassador
Segment 7: interview townspeople (2) about town for sale
6 counts of consumer interaction
119
6/1/03 9pm – 10pm
North Carolina Rudolph capture: interviews (2)
US/EU relations
Laci Peterson case
Middle East violence: interview with professor
Media Ownership debate
Technology: Robo Rx
interview with WSJ reporter
Queen Anniversary
Last Call call-in question regarding playing hooky (1)
4 counts of consumer interaction
6/21/03 9pm – 10pm
Arizona fires (3)
Tyson Arrest
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
Terrorism in Kenya
Iraq: interview with Army officials
Bounty Hunters
Harry Potter book released (1)
Israel/Palestinian conflict
Prince William turns 21
Segment 7: Interview with Mercury 13 Women (2)
6 counts of consumer interaction
7/10/03 9pm – 10pm
Iraq attacks
Bush vs. Democrats
Air safety
Los Angeles Police Shooting
Bakersfield murder: interview with family (1)
Radio hoax
Kobe Bryant sex scandal
NYC emergency management
Truman Diaries: interview with historian
Segment 7: interview with packager of cheese
3 counts of consumer interaction
7/28/03 9pm – 10pm
Bob Hope Death
Iraq/Saddam
120
Disappearance of student at Baylor
Indiana missing girl: interview with family (1)
Segment 7: Memories of Bob Hope (8)
9 counts of consumer interaction
8/15/03 9pm – 10pm
Northeast power blackout
Northeast power grids
Blackout in Cleveland: interview with Cleveland residents (3)
Blackout in Michigan: interview with Michigan residents (4)
Mayoral interviews
Hambali captured
Segment 7: interview New Yorkers: 9/11 vs. Blackout (2)
9 counts of consumer interaction
8/27/03 9pm – 10pm
IL shooting
Catholic priest scandal: interview (1)
Alabama: 10 commandments in school
Iraq cost
Iraq casualties listed
California election
Air pollution/Global Warming
interview with Newsday columnist
Segment 7: March on Washington 40 years later (1)
3 counts of consumer interaction
9/10/03 9pm – 10pm
Memories of 9/11
Criticism of Iraq
Interview with LA Times journalist
Iraq casualties listed
interview with Chris Hitchens
Rx Drugs: interview with users (3)
Israel/Palestine conflict
Segment 7: Burden of Occupation (2)
6 counts of consumer interaction
9/22/03 9pm – 10pm
Bush UN speech: interviews (1)
Looking back at 9/11
Champlain Spy
121
Hurricane Isabel: interview with residents (2)
Iraq casualties listed
interview with Madeline Albright
California election recall
2004 Campaign
interview with Bill Maher
Segment 7: interview with storyteller's daughter
5 counts of consumer interaction
10/6/03 9pm – 10pm
California recall
Rebuilding Iraq
CNN correspondent report on Middle East
interview with LA Times reporter
Las Vegas tiger attack on Roy: interview with spectator
Adams campaign: interviews from the campaign trail (2)
Wounded soldiers (5)
interview Steve Martin
8 counts of consumer interaction
10/16/03 9pm – 10pm
NY Ferry Accident: interview with eyewitness (3)
UN resolution
Election of new Malaysian Prime Minister
CNN correspondent reports on terrorism
Pope Anniversary
Homosexuality & Religion: interview with priests (2)
Iraq casualties listed
Clark campaign
Cubs lose in playoffs: interview with Cubs fans (4)
iPod parties (2)
Segment 7: interview with oldest teacher (2)
Most emailed story topics listed
15 counts of consumer interaction
11/4/03 9pm – 10pm
Iraq attacks: interview with victim's families (5)
New governor of California respond to Iraq War
Iraq casualties listed
Dover Dilemma
America votes: interview with voters (2)
CBS/Reagan coverage
122
Segment 7: interview with horse breeder (1)
9 counts of consumer interaction
11/27/03 9pm – 10pm
Bush secret mission: interview (2)
interview with Time Magazine reporter
interview with Political Science professor
interview with Washington Post reporter
Segment 7: 91 Whiskeys on the Wall (3)
6 counts of consumer interaction
12/10/03 9pm – 10pm
Raids tribunal
Children death rate & the economy
Tate retrial
School Drug Raid: interview with student
sex offender
Campaign spending
2004 Campaign
Segment 7: look at Iraq from Hospitals (3)
4 counts of consumer interaction
12/20/03 9pm – 10pm
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Al Queda threat
US Drug War
interview with Policy professor
Michael Jackson molestation case: interview with fans (3)
interview with Casimin regarding child abuse
interview with Saddam daughter
interview with Dennis Kucinich
movie wrap-up
Josh McKinney case: interview with family (3)
Last Call call-in question regarding Michael Jackson & Molestation (5)
13 counts of consumer interaction
1/7/04 9pm – 10pm
Iraq attacks
interview with immigrant
Rowland/CT incident
Campaign 04: interviews from the campaign trail (2)
123
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Immigration Reform
Interview with Bill Maher
3 counts of consumer interaction
1/21/04 9pm – 10pm
Campaign 04: interviews from the campaign trail (3)
Re-feminists
Patriot Act
interview with Marine Corp Attorney
Campaign 04 Outlook
Segment 7: Trail Mix – looks at past campaigns (1)
4 counts of consumer interaction
2/2/04 9pm – 10pm
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Super Bowl outrage: interview with fans (3)
Iraq casualties listed
Tuesday vote in Arizona (3)
Bush budget policies
Super bowl half-time show analysis
Segment 7: Handicapped Basketball players (2)
9 counts of consumer interaction
2/16/04 9pm – 10pm
Sex scandal: interviews with citizen
2004 Campaign
Bush military records in question
Catholic Church scandal
Baseball Rodriguez trade to NYY: interviews with fans (6)
Segment 7: Views on Polygamy (2)
9 counts of consumer interaction
3/4/04 9pm – 10pm
Bush vs. Kerry: who should win? Interviews (4)
Intelligence scandal
Iraq casualties listed
Where is Bin Laden?
Haiti humanitarian disaster: interviews with protesters (4)
Disney/Pixar merger
interview with Autism patients (2)
Segment 7: Human Smuggling (1)
12 counts of consumer interaction
124
3/14/04 9pm – 10pm
Madrid bombings: interview with witness
Israel/Palestine conflict
Views on status of Iraq (3)
California murders: interview with family (3)
interview with CNN analyst
Should abortion be illegal?
Interview with witness regarding Spain bombings
Go to CNN.com for more information
Last Call call-in question regarding legality of abortion (9)
18 counts of consumer interaction
4/6/04 9pm – 10pm
Iraq casualties listed
Handover
No Fly Zones: interview with pilots (2)
Reign of Walmart: interview with shoppers (2)
Segment 7: Remembering Rwanda (2)
7 counts of consumer interaction
4/20/04 9pm – 10pm
Coalition building
CNN correspondent report on Arab World
Power transfer in Iraq?
Rules of War
Campaign 2004
Iraq casualties listed
US/Saudi Arabia relations
Remembering Columbine: interview with students (3)
Segment 7: letters to soldiers fighting in Iraq (3)
7 counts of consumer interaction
5/14/04 9pm – 10pm
interview with Iraqi prisoners (3)
interview with Law professor
Iraq casualties listed
interview with wounded soldiers (4)
Oakland A's trade
Photos of Genius (1)
Segment 7: Viewer response to Brown vs. Board of Education (2)
12 counts of consumer interaction
125
5/24/04 9pm – 10pm
Bush addresses nation regarding Iraq
Desert attack: interview with former soldier
Who is Mayfield? Interview with friend
interview with Sen. Biden
Voter feedback regarding election (3)
Iraq casualties listed
Voices from the street regarding Iraq (3)
Interview with Professor regarding future options for Iraq
Segment 7: Anatomy of Firefight (3)
13 counts of consumer interaction
6/17/04 9pm – 10pm
9/11 Commission Report: interview with protesters (4)
Who is the phantom prisoner?
Prisoner abuse
Iraq casualties listed
Gay marriage (2)
Segment 7: Whose on the rise? (3)
10 counts of consumer interaction
6/27/04 9pm – 10pm
Hostages at Guantanamo
NATO Summit
Prisoners of War: interview with POW
The future of Iraq
Peterson trial: interview with friend
interview with El-Allawi
Clinton book
Last Call call-in question regarding amnesty for POWs (6)
8 counts of consumer interaction
7/14/04 9pm – 10pm
CIA Intelligence Sources: interview (2)
CNN correspondent reports on terrorism
Same sex marriage
Campaign 04
st
Bush twins celebrate 21 birthday
Updates on Senate races
Iraq casualties listed
Defense/Military Options
126
Logging Industry (2)
Living with AIDS (3)
Segment 7: Where to Vacation? (2)
10 counts of consumer interaction
7/28/04 9pm – 10pm
Democratic National Convention
Speeches of the Day
More DNC coverage
Campaign 2004
Interview with filmmaker Michael Moore
interview with political authors
Outlook for Campaign 2004
0 counts of consumer interaction
8/11/04 9pm – 10pm
Sudanese refugees: interview with refugee
Iraq casualties listed
2004 election
Bryant case (1)
Rumsfeld in Afghanistan (1)
4 counts of consumer interaction
8/25/04 9pm – 10pm
interview regarding swift boat ads (2)
prisoner abuse
Iraq casualties listed
Najaf in Iraq (1)
UK Terrorism
2004 Election
Segment 7: Paris Liberation Day (3)
7 counts of consumer interaction
9/3/04 9pm – 10pm
Hurricane Frances: interview with residents (2)
School Drug standoff (1)
Bypass surgery for Bill Clinton: interview (2)
Post – Republican National Convention
Update on Hurricane Frances (2)
Clinton on Larry King
7 counts of consumer interaction
9/21/04 9pm – 10pm
127
Iraq kidnappings
2004 election: panel with correspondents and analysts
Nuclear program in N. Korea: interview (1)
Bush military record
interview with Novak
interview with Gourevitch
Tropical Storm Jeanne
interviews with victims of priest sex abuse (8)
Segment 7: Poker on TV (5)
14 counts of consumer interaction
10/9/04 9pm – 10pm
Afghanistan elections: interviews with reactions (2)
2004 election: interview from voters (3)
hostage be-heading
interview with CNN intelligence analyst
Peterson case
Psyche of serial killers: interview with professors (2)
Egypt report attack (3)
Mind over matter (1)
Last Call call-in question regarding military hostages (5)
16 counts of consumer interaction
10/20/04 9pm – 10pm
Voter suppression (2)
Flu vaccine
Iraq casualties listed
Hassan kidnapping: interview with professor
Economic state of US
Segment 7: Jews living in Iraq (1)
5 counts of consumer interaction
11/1/04 9pm – 10pm
2004 election
battleground states
Debate regarding election: interview with professor
Iraq casualties listed
Journalist discussion regarding election
Ohio: last frontier
Segment 7: Jazz and Voting (1)
3 counts of consumer interaction
128
11/24/04 9pm – 10pm
Whistle blowers/Drugs
Iraq casualties listed
Mollen death
Disputed election in Ukraine: interview with civilian
Turkey budget
Thanksgiving traditions
Segment 7: The importance of friends (1)
3 counts of consumer interaction
12/7/04 9pm – 10pm
Guantanamo Bay controversy
CIA report
intelligence reform
influenza outbreak?
Steroid scandal
Iraq casualties listed
Segment 7: Beneath the surface (1)
2 counts of consumer interaction
12/17/04 9pm – 10pm
Celebrex controversy: interviews with prescription medication users (5)
Missouri kidnapping
Rebuilding Iraq
US/Cuba relations
Iraq casualties listed
Intelligence reform
Privacy v. Security debate (2)
interview with James Brooks
Segment 7: Aluminum Trees (2)
10 counts of consumer interaction
1/8/05 9pm – 10pm
Winter weather: interviews with residents (6)
Go to CNN.com to donate to Tsunami relief aid
Politics
Asia Tsunami: interview with witness
interview with weatherman Dejong
DNC vs. RNC
ET interview regarding Brad/Jen split
Last Call call-in question regarding paying to promote President views (2)
10 counts of consumer interaction
129
1/16/05 9pm – 10pm
Graner sentence: interview with sentence attendees (6)
Iraq elections/instability
Bush inauguration
Biography of Boris Yeltsin
CIA report/allegations
Michael Jackson molestation case
Tsunami mosques
Schwarzenegger amendment
Golden Globe update
Last Call call-in question regarding biological vs. adoptive parents (2)
8 counts of consumer interaction
2/4/05 9pm – 10pm
The story of a Marine (2)
Iraq elections
Role of lobbyists
Same sex marriage in NYC: interviews with proponents (3)
Colorado remarks
interview with Pete Hamill
Iraq casualties listed
military logistics: interview with professor
Schwarzenegger elected in California
Child abuse in Florida: interview with family (2)
Segment 7: Belvin's Story (3)
12 counts of consumer interaction
2/26/05 9pm – 10pm
BTK serial killings: interview with family (2)
Florida kidnappings (3)
Terranova reunion (1)
Rader arrest: interview with witnesses (4)
Boston University Porn Magazines: interview with students (3)
Boot camp death: interview with friends (2)
Walesa Peace Prize
Academy Awards update
Last Call call-in question regarding censorship and pornography (6)
21 counts of consumer interaction
3/9/05 9pm – 10pm
Breast Cancer and smoking: interview with patient
130
Michael Jackson molestation case
Passion of the Christ film
Dan Rather retires: interview with fans (2)
Drug Bust at Schools (8)
Steroids in professional sports
Iraq casualties listed
IRA: interview with workers (3)
Segment 7: interview with aspiring artist
16 counts of consumer interaction
3/24/05 9pm – 10pm
Schiavo case: interview with family (3)
Should people have the right to die? (5)
Living Will: interview with citizens (2)
Child murder in Kanka: interview with family (3)
Segment 7: Civil Rights Anniversary (2)
15 counts of consumer interaction
4/5/05 9pm – 10pm
Pope Death: interview with Catholic
Mourning at Vatican
American priests reaction (3)
Reaction from St. Peters Church (3)
View of death from Italian catholics: interview (1)
Photos of Pope
Peter Jennings diagnosed with lung cancer
8 counts of consumer interaction
4/21/05 9pm – 10pm
interviews with Iraq protesters (5)
Fact/Fiction regarding Iraq
New Pope: interview with catholic
Truth of the Da Vinci Code?
Judge nominations
Iraq casualties listed
Oklahoma bombing Anniversary: interview with civilians (2)
Segment 7: Tango & Health (2)
11 counts of consumer interaction
5/7/05 9pm – 10pm
Reopen Williams case: interview with civilian
Bush Europe visit
131
Reese case
Terrorist attacks: interview with citizen
Atlanta child murders
Kentucky Derby: interview with fan
Michael Jackson molestation case
Biography of Nelson Mandela
interview with horse herder
interview with Kevin Kline
Last Call call-in question regarding reopening cases (5)
9 counts of consumer interaction
5/22/05 9pm – 10pm
Buried alive in Florida: interview with rescue workers (5)
interview with missing children's family (1)
Judicial nominees
US/Afghanistan relations
Middle East relations
Stem Cell research
Michael Jackson molestation case: interview with fan
Security watch: interview with police officers (3)
Star Wars Anniversary (1)
Last Call call-in question regarding Stem Cell research (8)
19 counts of consumer interaction
6/16/05 9pm – 10pm
Ford Cars catch fire: interview with Ford owners (9)
Race and Medications: interview with pharmacists (2)
Iraq casualties listed
Tal Afar interview
Security watch: interview with law enforcement officer
Segment 7: National History Day (5)
Go to CNN.com for more information
6/27/05 9pm – 10pm
BTK killing
interview with Rader witness
Serial killers
Copyright/10 commandments
Iraq casualties listed
Segment 7: Parker attack (1)
3 counts of consumer interaction
132
7/9/05 9pm – 10pm
Hurricane Dennis
UK bombing
interview with Flock
interview with residents anticipating Hurricane Dennis (3)
iReport shown of rough waters
Last Call call-in question regarding Hurricanes (4)
7 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
7/25/05 9pm – 10pm
UK bombs
Egypt bombing
US heighten security?
Interview with witness to London bombings
AFL-CIO Union: interview with workers (2)
interview with Sen. Santorum
Segment 7: interview with budding singer (1)
4 counts of consumer interaction
8/9/05 9pm – 10pm
Spread of lung cancer: interview with patients (2)
Tennessee manhunt
Doctor rapist: interview with victims (3)
Space shuttle landing
Iraq update
Security watch
Iraq casualties listed
Russia trapped submarine
Segment 7: Hamburger America (14)
20 counts of consumer interaction
8/25/05 9pm – 10pm
Hurricane Katrina: interview with residents (3)
Course of Hurricane Katrina
Privatization of weather service?
Power lines in Florida
Cruise ship jumper: interview with friend
Segment 7: Lance Armstrong: interview with fan
5 counts of consumer interaction
9/4/05 9pm – 10pm
Katrina/State of Emergency: interview with families (3)
133
FEMA in Peril: interview with worker
Death of William Rehnquist: interview with friend
eyewitness interview regarding Katrina
African Americans & Katrina (1)
CNN link families lost in Hurricane (6)
Email CNN to help families connect
Last Call call-in question regarding FEMA (3)
17 counts of consumer interaction
9/29/05 9pm – 10pm
Katrina and crime rate: interview with police (4)
Rebuild New Orleans (2)
High School Football players continue to play: interview football players (2)
Abortion & Race
CIA scandal: interview with civilian
missed news
Michael Dukakis biography: interview with friend
10 counts of consumer interaction
10/10/05 9pm – 10pm
South Asia Quake
CNN.com: download hunt for Bin Laden
Los Angeles police beating (1)
Katrina/Race
Britney takes clothes off of Ebay
CIA Operative Sources: interview with CIA operative
Freeh Book
Anita Hill: interview with friends (2)
Segment 7: Bird Flu patient interviews (4)
9 counts of consumer interaction
10/23/05 9pm – 10pm
Hurricane Wilma: interview with residents (3)
Preparation in Florida
Wilma coverage: interview with residents (3)
Classified as Category 3 hurricane (1)
elderly evacuees
Everglade evacuated: interview with evacuees (1)
Vacationers in Cancun evacuated (3)
11 counts of consumer interaction
11/9/05 9pm – 10pm
134
bombs in Jordan
Jordan situation
Filesharing: interview with student
America at risk
victim interviews (2)
interview with torture victim (1)
Pape interview
Segment 7: interview with Graffiti artist (1)
5 counts of consumer interaction
11/20/05 9pm – 10pm
WA Mall Shooting: interview with witness
Go to CNN.com for more information
Hunt for Zarqawi
Bush Asia trip
Talk tonight about Katrina/FEMA (8)
Starr interview
Williams Case reopen: interview with witness
Bird Flu update
Snowboard rescue: interview with family (2)
Last Call call-in question regarding Iraq War (7)
20 counts of consumer interaction
12/17/05 9pm – 10pm
Domestic spying
Violence in Hong Kong
Time's Person of the Year
Spencer Death
NYC transit strike: interview with striker
future for transit marshals
Katrina Disaster Tour by bus company: interview with outraged people (3)
Faith v. Nationality (1)
Robbery attempt (1)
BMX bikes (1)
Deer attacks: interview with survivors (5)
Hollywood portrayal of Geisha
Last Call call-in question regarding Person of the Year (10)
22 counts of consumer interaction
12/19/05 9pm – 10pm
Seaplane crash: interview with eyewitnesses (5)
Spying scandal
135
Press Conference regarding seaplane crash
If consumers have footage, please send to CNN
Bush year in review
6 counts of consumer interaction
1/9/06 9pm – 10pm
Starbucks bomb: interviews with witnesses (2)
Alito nomination
Coal mine explosion: interview with family (1)
Is induced coma legal?
South Carolina lynching story: interview with townspeople (2)
Baby Noor rescued
Segment 7: Difference between multitasking and distractions (1)
6 counts of consumer interaction
1/26/06 9pm – 10pm
Oprah/Frey's Book
CNN analysts review plagiarism
Debate regarding “A Million Pieces”
Oprah and the public trust
Ethics/Publishing
interview with blogger regarding plagiarism
1 count of consumer interaction
2/7/06 9pm – 10pm
New Mexico Posey murder: interview with family members (5)
Entwhistle murder: interview with family (6)
Wildfires in Los Angeles: interview with witnesses (6)
Middle East conflicts: interview with victim
Medical mysteries (4)
Segment 7: MLK remembered (1)
23 counts of consumer interaction
2/19/06 9pm – 10pm
Powerball Lottery: interview with winners/players (5)
Severe weather: interview with travelers (2)
Mudslide in Philippines: interview with victims (2)
Port Security
Baby Noor
Mardi Gras in New Orleans: interview with attendees (6)
interview with Bird Flu victim
BAFTA awards
US/Mexico relations: interview with immigrant (1)
136
interview with Fmr. Mafia member
Lottery winners and their stories (3)
Last Call call-in question regarding Dubai ports (5)
26 counts of consumer interaction
3/9/06 9pm – 10pm
St. Guillen murder: interview with friend
Port Security
FEMA legislation
Katrina body search: interview with victim family (1)
business stories
Michael Jackson & Neverland ranch
2 counts of consumer interaction
3/24/06 9pm – 10pm
Iraq War: interview with victim
Pennsylvania missing girl (2)
Empty the prisons: interview with former prisoners (2)
Tennessee pastor murder: interview with churchgoers (2)
Segment 7: Sexsomniacs (5)
12 counts of consumer interaction
4/10/06 9pm – 10pm
What is it like to be an immigrant? (8)
Virtual test for consumers regarding American citizenship
Iran nuclear program
interview with Hersh
Duke Lacrosse Team allegations: interview with teammates (2)
Segment 7: 911 Tragedy – accurate call for help? (2)
12 counts of consumer interaction
4/28/06 9pm – 10pm
Limbaugh arrested
immigrants in the USA (2)
interview with Salmas
crude politics
Terrorism/Zarqawi videotape
Situation in Darfur
Segment 7: Spanish National Anthem? (3)
5 counts of consumer interaction
5/7/06 6pm – 7pm
CIA shakeup
137
Polygamy/FBI: interview with polygamist
Airline industry flight cancellations (2)
Child pornography: interview with parents (2)
Gang trackers: interview with gang trackers (2)
VA survival camp: interview with survivors (2)
Last Call question repeated
interview with Schatz
Last Call call-in question regarding CIA/Goss scandal (5)
15 counts of consumer interaction
5/23/06 9pm – 10pm
bribing the Pope: interview with Catholic
CNN correspondent reports on terrorism
High gas prices: interview with citizen
DC Sniper shooting (1)
Interview with Jack Horowitz
Fire in Hamburg (Germany)
3 counts of consumer interaction
6/11/06 9pm – 10pm
Storm Alberto
Cyberwarfare?
Last Call question introduced
Immigrants in the USA (5)
interview with Henning
Guantanamo Bay update
Iraq: interview with victim
CIA interview
Cheating in schools: interview with students (4)
Last Call call-in question regarding hurricanes (3)
14 counts of consumer interaction
6/27/06 9pm – 10pm
Flag desecration
Troop withdrawal?
CNN correspondent reports on Middle East
Nevada airport shooting
Wildfires in the West: interview with witness
Flooding in the Northeast (4)
What is classified?
Hurricane Katrina/fraud
5 counts of consumer interaction
138
7/12/06 9pm – 10pm
Middle East situation
Wildfires ravage the West: interview with citizens (4)
bombings in India
US foreign policy: interview with professor
Is Iraq un-fixable?
Interview with polygamists (2)
Lost children: interview with families (4)
“The Shot” replace Segment 7
11 counts of consumer interaction
7/24/06 9pm -10pm
Middle East: interview with citizen
Iraq casualties statistic
interview with Bill Richardson
Beirut bombings
What to do in Hizballah?
Reporter's notebook (1)
“The Shot”
2 counts of consumer interaction
8/10/06 9pm – 10pm
Geddes interview
Liquid explosives
Liquid on planes: interview with travelers (7)
CNN correspondent report on terrorism
Middle East
UK plane scenario
7 counts of consumer interaction
8/17/06 9pm – 10pm
Ramsey murder: interview with family (4)
Discussion regarding Ramsey murder (2)
Viewer Q & A with Karr (3)
9 counts of consumer interaction
9/7/06 9pm – 10pm
9/11 & Al Queda: interview with victims (3)
Al Queda audiotape
Mullah interview
Baseline killer: interview with victims (2)
Reporter attacked (2)
139
Shot: Paris Hilton arrested
7 counts of consumer interaction
9/14/06 9pm – 10pm
CNN correspondent report on Iraq situation
Sudan genocide: Go to CNN.com to help
Ecoli outbreak
Montreal shooting (2)
Seattle ravekillings: interview with families (2)
Shot
5 counts of consumer interaction
10/8/06 9pm – 10pm
Foley Scandal: interview with citizens (4)
Iraq situation
Last Call question introduced
severe weather conditions
Iraq War
Kimmet interview
N. Korea going nuclear?
Last Call call-in question (4)
9 counts of consumer interaction
10/27/06 9pm – 10pm
Campaign 2006
Political scandals
Murphy interview
California wildfires: interview with residents (2)
Colorado wildfires (4)
Shot
6 counts of consumer interaction
11/13/06 9pm – 10pm
Iraq War coverage
Campaign 2008/potential candidates
Bush legacy
Wounded soldiers (3)
Shot
3 counts of consumer interaction
11/26/06 9pm – 10pm
140
Richard Rant: interview with citizens (4)
Holiday travel options (4)
Pope visit US
NY Groom Shooting: interview with wedding attendee
How to quit smoking: interview with smokers (2)
Howard interview
Iraq casualties listed
Holiday travel iReport photo
Last Call call-in question regarding Richard Rant (7)
19 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
12/14/06 9pm – 10pm
Mt. Hood: interview with climbers (3)
Senate majority (1)
Political speculation for candidates
interview with polygamists (2)
How to live longer: interview with old people (3)
Shot
9 counts of consumer interaction
12/26/06 9pm – 10pm
Saddam sentence: interview with Iraqi
US Foreign policy (1)
James Brown death: interview with fan (1)
interview with mountain climbers (2)
Donald Trump vs. Rosie O Donnell
Views on religion (1)
Shot
6 counts of consumer interaction
1/8/07 9pm – 10pm
California wildfire
Situation in Somalia
Oprah School in South Africa: interview with students (9)
AIDS in Africa: interview with patient
Noquera interview
Go to CNN.com to donate to Oprah school
11 counts of consumer interaction
1/27/07 9pm – 10pm
California elections: interview with voters (4)
Georgia sex case: interview with victims (2)
141
Epic Center (2)
iReport regarding weather conditions
Iraq situation
Katrina: interview with victim
Arizona sex offender: interview with families (2)
CNN correspondent & analyst discussion panel
Dixon Case (1)
Last Call call-in question regarding teen sex (7)
19 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
2/4/07 9pm – 10pm
Walsh murder: interview with families (4)
Epic Center (2)
Tornadoes in Florida: interview with residents (10)
Virtual Reality therapy: interview with computer technicians (2)
Death from Cosmic surgery (1)
Teen Drinking (3)
Models and Weight Problems (3)
interview with Charlize Theron
Last Call call-in question regarding Walsh murder (5)
30 counts of consumer interaction (highest recorded in content analysis)
2/21/07 9pm – 10pm
Campaign 2008
interview with Autism sufferers (2)
Anna Nicole Smith death: interview with family (5)
World's smallest baby born
7 counts of consumer interaction
3/17/07 9pm – 10pm
Air travel cancellations: interview with passengers (7)
Epic Center (1)
iReport aired
CIA scandal
NY Groom shooting: interview with friend
Anderson interview
interview with Iraq demonstrator
Drug Abuse/Meth: interview with users (5)
Slang language: interview with young people (4)
Los Angeles recover from fires: interview with residents (3)
Last Call call-in question regarding air travel (4)
26 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
142
3/28/07 9pm – 10pm
Captured UK soldiers: interview with POW
Missing children (1)
Politics
Jokes about President Bush
Oprah school in S. Africa: interview with teacher
interview with Autism sufferer
Oklahoma tornado
Shot
4 counts of consumer interaction
4/13/07 9pm – 10pm
Rutgers/Imus comments: interview with listeners (3)
Racist comments on the radio
Iraq situation
Politics: election in 2006
Winkler trial (1)
Giving 360: interview with charity organizer
Choosing life (1)
Malaria outbreak and symptoms
6 counts of consumer interaction
4/17/07 9pm – 10pm
Virginia Tech shooting: interview with students (14)
iReport aired from shooting site (2)
interview with iReporter
Go to CNN.com to help
School shootings of the past (2)
18 counts of consumer interaction + 2 iReports
5/2/07 9pm – 10pm
Imus Lawsuit
Congress actions regarding Iraq
2008 election
Dirty politics
interview with voter
Planet in Peril: interview with environmentalist
Shot: Britney Spears comeback
2 counts of consumer interaction
5/20/07 9pm – 10pm
Iraq War situation
143
CNN correspondent reports on Middle East
Immigration reform: interview with immigrants (3)
Idaho sniper attacks (3)
interview with Mike Gravel
immigrants working in restaurants (4)
California whales
iReport aired regarding wildfire in California
interview with iReporter
One-legged dancer?
How to be a hero (1)
12 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
6/8/07 9pm – 10pm
Paris Hilton goes to jail: interview with fan
round table discussion regarding Hilton jail sentence
Iraq War
Jefferson indicted
Politics: interview with voter
Go to CNN.com to submit a shot for this segment
Shot
3 counts of consumer interaction
6/25/07 9pm – 10pm
Bush Iraq speech
Cheney's secret
Davis Death: interview with fans (3)
Raw politics
Viewer comments regarding Iraq War (2)
Planet in Peril
Shot
5 counts of consumer interaction
7/8/07 9pm – 10pm
Fires in West: interview with residents (3)
helicopter crash
Child release
Video picks: interview with citizen
Iraq War
Geraghty interview
Go to CNN.com to find more information about the 2008 election
Sheehan vs. Pelosi
787 Dreamliner
144
How to be a hero? (1)
6 counts of consumer interaction
7/24/07 9pm – 10pm
Connecticut Terror: interview with witness
Iraq War
Mississippi jail beating (10)
Planet in Peril: interview with environmentalist
Lindsay Lohan arrested
Shot
12 counts of consumer interaction
8/4/07 9pm – 10pm
South Carolina explosion
Minnesota bridge collapse: interview with witnesses (7)
California murder journalist
Video picks
Politics
Barry Bonds 755 homerun
Sinking car rescue (1)
iReport of bridge collapse (7) – credit given to iReporter
8 counts of consumer interaction + 7 iReports
8/22/07 9pm – 10pm
Utah mine cave-in: interview with rescue workers (2)
Midwest flooding (1)
Politics
Iraq War
Michael Vick/Dogfights
Shot
Hurricane Dean blog messages read on-the-air (3)
6 counts of consumer interaction
9/9/07 9pm – 10pm
Storm Gabrielle
iReport aired regarding Storm Gabrielle
interview with iReporter
Craig/sex scandal
Train wreck hero (1)
MD survival: interview with survivors (2)
Vote 2008/politics
145
interview with Robert Redford
Neo-Nazi Jews (2)
MD intrusion (2)
Who are the heroes? (2)
Britney Spears comeback
Shot
10 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
9/27/07 9pm – 10pm
Floods in Myanmar
iReport regarding flooding in Myanmar aired
Child healthcare: interview with parents (2)
Canada terror
Cyberattack? Interview with computer junkie
Florida at sea: interview with FL residents (2)
IL police violence (4)
Politics
Planet in Peril
Shot
9 counts in consumer interaction
10/12/07 9pm – 10pm
Iraq War
Arizona airport: interview with passengers (2)
Anna Nicole Smith death
Politics
interview with amateur designer
Al Gore wins Nobel Peace Prize
Planet in Peril
3 counts of consumer interaction
10/22/07
California wildfires: interview with residents (5)
drought in Southeast
flooding in New Orleans
Planet in Peril
send in video of environmental changes/damage
politics
iReport montage regarding California wildfire (3)
6 counts of consumer interaction + 3 iReports
11/6/07 9pm – 10pm
146
Emergency in Pakistan
Immigrants in USA (9)
Iraq casualties listed
interview with Bill Clinton
Politics: interview with voters (2)
Child soldiers (1)
Viewer response to a female president (2)
Go to CNN.com for complete election coverage
15 counts of consumer interaction
11/27/07 9pm – 10pm
Republican identity crisis: interview with Republican
send in videos for political debate
Middle East update
Taylor murder
Relationship between crime and punishment: interview with viewers (5)
send in your ideas for the Shot segment
Shot
8 counts of consumer interaction
12/5/07 9pm – 10pm
Omaha Mall Shooting: interview with witnesses (5)
iReport aired regarding Mall shooting
iReporter interviewed
Northeast shooting: interview with victims (2)
New Hampshire hostage released (1)
9 counts of consumer interaction + 1 iReport
12/22/07 9pm – 10pm
White Case
Weather conditions
Wolf attacks man: interview with victims (2)
video pick
California predator caught (1)
McCann kidnapping: interview with families (2)
politics
iReport aired about Midwest snowstorm
holiday shopping
happenings in Afghanistan
New Years Resolutions: interviews with celebrators (3)
Holiday iReport videos aired (4)
8 counts of consumer interaction + 5 iReports
147
1/10/08 9pm – 10pm
Campaign 2008
Primary update
Humor on the campaign trail
Paul for President
interview with missing marine
Republicans in South Carolina
Kenya crisis: interview with humanitarian
Request for viewer caption
4 counts of consumer interaction
1/27/08 9pm – 10pm
Latinos in the USA (4)
Republican strategy
Iraq situation
IL education plans: interview with teacher
State of the Union analysis
Obama for President?
State of the Economy: interview with civilians (3)
SAG Awards
Ms. America Pageant: interview with attendees (2)
10 counts of consumer interaction
2/11/08 9pm – 10pm
Showdown States?
Super delegates: interview with super delegate
Interview with Mike Huckabee
Michelle Obama as First Lady?
Send us requests for Shot segment
Shot
2 counts of consumer interaction
2/29/08 9pm – 10pm
Prince Harry return from Iraq
Super Tuesday predictions
Ricin poisoning
Immigrant stories (6)
send us requests for Shot segment
Shot
7 counts of consumer interactions
148
3/14/08 9pm – 10pm
iReports regarding presidential election (3)
Atlanta tornado
interview with voter
interview with John McCain
interview with Reverend
tornado update
3 counts of consumer interaction + 3 iReports
3/25/08 9pm – 10pm
Clinton vs. Obama: interview with citizens (6)
Taxes in the next term
Republican candidate is McCain?
Candidates view on terrorism: interview with voters (3)
Iraq status
send us request for shot segment
Shot
10 counts of consumer interaction
149
Graph A: Trend Analysis of Interactivity
2002
2003
2004
Number of Solicita tions
Number of iReports
Number of Consumer Interactions
2005
2006
2007
2008
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Graph B: Trend Analysis of iReports
25
22.5
20
17.5
15
Column 2
12.5
10
7.5
5
2.5
0
2005
2006
2007
150
2008
Graph C: Percentage of Consumer Interaction/day
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
151
Graph D: Percentages of Consumer Interactivity
% of newscasts containing iReports
% of newscasts witn
little to no interaction
(0-3)
% of newscasts with
moderate interaction
(4-20)
% of newscasts with
high interaction (2130)
Graph E: Cable News Subscribers by Channel (2007) – Kagan Research
152
Graph F: 2005 Cumulative Audience for Cable News – Nielsen
Graph G: Cable News Prime Time Median Audience (2006) – Nielsen
153
Graph H: Prime Time Cable Audience 2007 – Nielsen
Graph I: Cable News Daytime Median Audience (2006) – Nielsen
154
Graph J: Cable vs. Network News Viewership (2006) – Nielsen
Graph K: Cable News Programming Expenses (2006) –Kagan Research
155
Graph L: Cable News Revenue/Expenses (2006) – Kagan Research
Graph M: Cable News Monthly Revenue per Subscriber (2007) – Kagan Rsrch
156
Graph N: Survey Analysis – How Often Do You Watch CNN? (Percentages)
Once a
week
Several
Times a
Week
Column 1
Once a
Day
Several
Times a
Day
10
20
30
40
50
60
157
70
80
90
100
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
Appendix E: Sample Survey
1. How often do you watch TV news?
a. Once a week
b. Several times a week
c. Once a day
d. Several times a day
2. How much do you trust television news?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
3. Which station do you watch most frequently?
a. CNN
b. MSNBC
c. FOX News
d. Other:
4. What aspect of TV news do you trust the most?
a. The station itself
b. The reporters who cover the news
c. The content of the news story
d. The source of the news story
e. Other:
5. How much do you trust the newest feature on CNN News, iReporting? (That is, when
consumers can send in their own video footage of news to be distributed nationally by
CNN)
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
6. How much do you trust the quality of iReporting?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
173
7. How much do you trust the content of iReporting?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
8. How much do you trust the source of iReporting?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
9. How much do you trust citizen journalists?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
10. How much do you trust the quality of CNN Television news?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
11. How much do you trust the content of CNN Television news?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
12. How much do you trust the sources of CNN Television news?
a. A lot
b. Somewhat
c. A little
d. Not at all
13. Do you find television news entertaining?
a. Yes
b. No
14. What do you think about the transition news outlets are making to allow citizens to
send in video footage of news to be nationally distributed?
174
This research will only be used for academic research:
a. What is your age:
b. What is your occupation: ____ Student
c. What is your gender:
____ Male
Other:
_____ Female
Thank you for filling out this survey! Your assistance is greatly appreciated!
175
176