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Voice Communications
Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Benefits to the Community and Agency . . . . . . .
How Voice Communications Work. . . . . . . . . .
Things to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Challenges to Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purchasing Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Backup Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample Press Release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Legal Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Voice Communications: Executive Summary
Executive Summary
By Margaret Jacobs
The voice communications system (a.k.a. the radio) is arguably one of the most critical
piece of equipment in the public safety business. In recent years, tremendous advances in
technology (e.g., wireless and digital capabilities) have made this tool more valuable than ever.
For example, public safety workers can share pictures of suspects, criminal records, bulletins,
fingerprints, blueprints, and surveillance video across thousands of miles in minutes or even
seconds.
Yet, with such outstanding gains come new challenges, complexities, risks and concerns. For
instance:
• Wireless technologies and increasing terrorism threats create new security issues.
• As public safety agencies depend more heavily on computerized systems, any failures
with these systems have increasingly grave consequences. This was demonstrated very
poignantly during 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina.
• Both 9/11 and Hurricane Katrina brought to the nation’s attention how crucial it is
for public safety workers to be able to communicate both across local departments
(e.g. law enforcement, fire, and EMS) and between municipal, state, and federal
agencies.
It is vital for the safety of the public and especially for that of the public safety workers that
law enforcement executives remain aware of the issues surrounding technological advances in
their field. They must seriously consider technical advances and risks as they plan, build and
upgrade the voice communications systems in their agencies.
Amidst the many important issues surrounding voice technology in public safety today,
paramount in the post 9/11 world is the issue of interoperability. Interoperability is the ability
for public safety officials to share information in a secure, real-time, digital environment.
This concept encompasses the idea that public safety workers will have communications
equipment that is functional and secure between first responders across departments (e.g. law
enforcement, fire, and EMS) and also between local, state and federal agencies.
Obviously, there are hundreds of things to consider when purchasing or upgrading a voice
communications system. First, it is important to consider some general issues about making
such a purchase and estimating costs. Such an endeavor requires careful consideration
of both long-term and short-term budget planning. The project will include a design,
implementation, construction, and maintenance phase. Costs are highly dependent upon the
status of the existing system. While planners usually focus their first budgeting concerns on
the radio equipment itself, it is very important to consider all related costs including longterm support, training, and maintenance of the entire network. Preparing a full request for
proposal (RFP) is highly recommended.
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Voice Communications: Executive Summary
Some major factors to consider when preparing a RFP include the following:
• Be sure that the equipment you are considering allows for expansion and growth
• Consider its backward compatibility with older equipment
• Make sure your maintenance contract includes getting your system back up and running
quickly without days of downtime
Don’t forget hidden costs such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Service contracts
Maintenance
Consumables
Installation and programming charges
Consultants and contractors
Construction costs including things like site preparation and electrical wiring
Alarm systems and remote maintenance possibilities
Contingency funding for unexpected expenses
One recent study highlighted the most common problems with radio systems as reported by
public safety agencies. First on the list was incompatible radio systems. Shockingly one in three
agencies reported difficulties due to a lack of compatible wireless radio. Second was a lack of
funds. Other issues included geographical challenges, incompatible equipment, and spectrum
limitations.
Partnerships and creative thinking are a few ways to help overcome cost issues. One
cost-effective idea is incremental compliance, that is, slowly adding new equipment to a system
while maintaining compatibility with the older system. To overcome spectrum limitation
issues, an agency can utilize trunking. Trunking uses computers to queue frequencies to expand
channels and talk groups. The use of trunking can expand a system from ten channels up to 256.
Gateways and shared channels are other options to help with spectrum limitation.
As mentioned earlier, interoperability is the most important issue in voice communications
today. Therefore, beyond all the issues mentioned above, it is crucial for law enforcement officials
to carefully consider interoperability when purchasing or upgrading a communications system.
When attempting to build an interoperable radio system, one helpful item to consider is
the P25 Standard. It is a set of voluntary common system standards for digital public safety
communications selected by the Project 25 Steering Committee (a committee established
by APCO, NASTD and the U.S. Government). P25 compliant radios can communicate in
analog mode with older analog radios and in digital or analog mode with other P25 compliant
radios. The P25 standard also indicates that compliant systems can be cost-effectively upgraded
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Voice Communications: Executive Summary
and maintained throughout the life of the radio system. The P25 standard allows for eight
acceptable interfaces on all types of radio equipment (e.g. radios, base stations, and dispatch
consoles) which will then allow P25 compliant equipment from one manufacturer to operate
with equipment from another manufacturer.
Pioneers in the development of truly interoperable systems have encountered many obstacles
along the way. Diligent administrators have gained ground by moving cautiously and using
careful planning, strategy, preparation, and coordination between departments and wise use of
technology. Successful implementers of the technology recommend the following behaviors:
• Clear up lack of bandwidth and quality of transmission problems to allow voice, data
and video to travel over the same communications lines.
• Upgrade from analog to digital and trunked systems.
• End the development of “siloed” radio systems (that is each department having its
own disparate system). Agencies on the local, state, and federal level must coordinate
development efforts. Governance must help to drive this.
• Public officials must plan for functional integration between first responders (law
enforcement, fire, and EMS).
• Public officials must also plan for interoperability in their threat response preparation
(e.g., natural disasters and terrorist attacks). This includes stand alone backup systems.
The SAFECOM program within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is working
on many projects to advance interoperability. SAFECOM’s Interoperability Continuum Tool
suggests there are critical factors that must be considered when designing and deploying a
successfully interoperable communications system. These factors include:
• Instituting cross-jurisdictional governance
• Setting acceptable and enforceable technical standards
• Insuring that national funds are distributed for interoperability efforts at state and
local levels
• Forming collaborative partnerships among federal, state, tribal and local government
agencies
• Standard operating procedures
• Technology
• Training/exercises
• Usage of interoperable communications
SAFECOM also encourages adherence to six other principles of collaboration to help
improve levels of interoperability when developing a system. These are:
•
•
•
•
•
Gain leadership commitment from all disciplines (law enforement, fire, EMS)
Foster collaboration between disciplines through leadership support
Interface with policy makers to gain leadership commitment and resource support
Use interoperability solutions on a regular basis
Plan and budget for ongoing updates to systems, procedures and documentation
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• Ensure collaboration/coordination across all elements (governance, standard operating
procedures, technology, training, and usage)
Fortunately, the 9/11 Commission agrees that interoperability is of utmost importance to
public safety and homeland security. The 9/11 Commission has worked to promote the
development of truly nationally interoperable communications systems on several fronts.
First, it has publically recognized the importance of increasing the radio spectrum for public
safety purposes and urged Congress to push the FCC to quickly allocate more of the radio
spectrum for public safety. It has also strongly encouraged the development of signal corps
units to stabilize communications across agencies. And it has implored Congress to make
funding for these issues a priority.
To help first responders overcome problems with congested public landlines and cellular
services in the event of a disaster, the National Communications System (NCS), part of
the DHS offers several of priority communications services. The landline service is called
GETS (Government Emergency Telecommunications Services); the wireless service is
called WPS (Wireless Priority Service). NCS also operates a FCC program known as
Telecommunications Service Priority (TSP) which mandates that in the event of a disaster,
damaged telecommunications circuits needed by emergency personnel will get priority
for repairs before others. Sadly, these services are often overlooked. Information on costs
for these services, how to sign up, available training, and insightful examples of how these
services helped disaster relief workers during Hurricane Katrina are provided in the TDR.
In the end, all the technology in the world is of no use if the people involved do not know
how to use it. As Chief Michael Mastroianna of the Penn Township Police Department put
it, “In the middle of a critical incident is not the time to learn how to use the radio”. The
records show that police departments with the greatest success provide frequent training
across a broad range of commonly used codes and the proper procedures for radio usage.
Training produces more effective, efficient, and safer departments. Standard operating
procedures, policies, and training plans are effective tools that foster these qualities. The
TDR provides excellent documentation on training standards and a sample policy on how to
handle calls and radio communications.
Developed for IACP’s Technology Desk Reference, 2006 by Margaret Jacobs, Consultant
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Voice Communications: A Perspective
A Perspective
The topic of voice communications is one of great interest to law enforcement
executives, but also a topic that presents a considerable challenge. Most law
enforcement executives know what communications capability they need or desire but
they often are confronted with complex technical issues that are difficult to understand
when determining the best approach to upgrading or replacing their communications
system and equipment. The documents included in this TDR are intended to be helpful
in that regard.
Over many years, the IACP has been collaborating with other leading national public
safety organizations to advocate for additional radio spectrum and increased funding
(at the local, state and federal level) to improve public safety communications and
interoperability. Working with the Association of Public Safety Communications
Officials International (APCO), Major Cities Chiefs Association (MCC), National
Sheriffs’ Association (NSA), Major County Sheriffs’ Association (MCSA), and the
International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), progress has been made in both areas.
As an example of such progress, in 1997, Congress directed the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to allocate additional radio spectrum to public
safety and as a result the FCC allocated 24 MHz of new spectrum in the 700 MHz
band. Although much of this spectrum has been occupied by television broadcasters,
in February of 2006, Congress passed a law directing the TV broadcasters to vacate
this spectrum no later than February 2009. This new spectrum provides an opportunity
for law enforcement and emergency services agencies to develop new communications
systems that allow for use of cutting edge technologies not previously available to public
safety. Up until this time, available data rates were limited to slow text type messaging.
Now, with the new wider bandwidths available at 700 MHz, public safety has an
opportunity to use new wideband and broadband technologies to provide cutting edge
services such as faster transmission of photos, diagrams, and streaming video.
Another example of progress has been the funding allocated by Congress for the COPS
Program and the Department of Homeland Security to improve law enforcement
communications systems.
(Continued)
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Law enforcement executives should also look to the members of the IACP
Communications & Technology Committee as a resource. These IACP members, both
law enforcement executives and commercial executives, have many years of experience
in implementing new communications systems and technology and can be helpful
when you have a question concerning such issues.
The documents included in this guide represent an effort to bring together resource
materials that will be helpful to law enforcement executives in better understanding
voice communications issues.
Chief Harlin McEwen, (Ret.)
Communication Committee Chair—International Association of Chiefs of Police
Communications Advisor—MCC, NSA, MCSA
Ithaca Police Department—New York
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Voice Communications: Benefits
Benefits to the Community
and Agency
Source: Steve Proctor, Executive Director—Utah Communications Agency Network
Many individuals and publications have cited the benefits that technology has brought
to the community, such as enhanced safety, security, and in many cases, a greater return
on the tax dollar. Law enforcement executives have frequently taken the lead in the
recommending and implementing technology within their communities.
One of the most vital pieces of equipment to law enforcement is their voice
communication system (radio). As society becomes more mobile, we recognize that we
cannot operate without it. This TDR was designed to assist us to recognize what will
best suit our departments as we advance or grow with new technologies and ideas. We
feel that this information will reduce the trial and error that brings with it expenses
and the loss of time. The IACP and the TDR are primary information sources for law
enforcement executives. We hope you find this information educational and of use as
you bring the needed technology into your departments.
Chief Ed Rhoades
Heber Police Department—Utah
An agency’s voice communications system is a key piece of equipment in the public
safety business. While police personnel are the key components of emergency
response, the ability to communicate is also critical. Communications and the ability
to command, direct, oversee and talk with responders in the field have proven to cut
response time and save lives. The absence of viable communications frustrates and
causes delays in operational responses.
Voice communications systems offer the following benefits to agencies:
• The ability to contact personnel for required response to routine and
emergency calls
• A lifeline for the officer in the field to contact dispatch and other officers for
assistance
• Savings in time, fuel and travel when used to coordinate response and
management of field personnel from a remote location
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Interoperable communications can provide the ability to coordinate with surrounding
agencies, cities, counties, and departments. This fact is becoming more and more true
with the multiplicity of requirements in emergency situations such as: chemical spills,
transportation detours, backup to responding officers, chases, multiple alarm fires and others.
While planning a communications system can be time-consuming, communications
systems with adequate planning and design can be expanded to meet growth and future
requirements as the agency expands. Secure and encrypted communications requirements can
aid undercover and task force operations requiring increased security. Additionally, systems
built by multiple agencies can be bridged together across agency or political boundaries to
improve communications interoperability and response. This is especially critical for agencies
to coordinate wide area responses.
Communications systems designed and built to public safety standards, with redundant
pathways and sufficient backups, usually survive widespread power, weather and other
dramatic actions to continue to function thru whatever the disaster. This will provide the
communications necessary to mitigate the situation. Public safety system are not subject to
call interruption or blocking by private users trying to access a network—such as cellular or
wired phone networks during emergency situations.
As technology advances, additional networks supporting data and video will also
become common, however the voice communications system will always be the primary
communication tool used by public safety officers for the foreseeable future.
Developed for IACP’s Technology Desk Reference, 2006 by Steve Proctor, Executive Director —Utah
Communications Agency Network
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How Voice Communications Work
Source: Understanding Wireless Communications Public Safety: A Guidebood to Technology Issues,
Planning and Management
Police radios, and eventually their use, have become the intense focus of public safety
services since 9/11. The police radio, whether mounted in or on a vehicle or carried
on a duty belt or by hand, has long since become a standard part of a police officer’s
equipment. Our desire for communication is simple, we want instant contact with a live
person any time day or night. When the transmit button is pushed, the signal is received,
the transmission is immediately acknowledged and whatever need has been requested is
filled. Despite weather, terrain, operation conditions or any other factor, an officer’s very
life will depend on that simple transmission of information.
The buzzword these days is “interoperability.” Within the same large agency it can be
complicated, not to mention with other first responders in the same jurisdiction or in
neighboring jurisdictions that might be responding as mutual aid.
Technology development has allowed equipment to evolve far beyond our simplest
needs, often making choices difficult. Even the most simple of equipment offers a
dizzying array of options. Dozens of channels, choice of frequencies, encryption, private
line, GPS location transmission, and emergency notification are but a few choices chiefs
must consider when looking to purchase. The situation becomes only more complicated
when the equipment moves up in sophistication to mobile radios and then base stations.
Once basic equipment is chosen, a chief has many more decisions to make to ensure that
communications will be effective. Transmission methods, frequencies and many other
potential problems must be resolved prior to purchase.
In the end, it is not unusual to find that a system, equipment, computers and software
are well beyond the budget a chief might have to fund the system. Then, the chief has to
make some tough decisions on what to sacrifice or where to look for further funding.
In the end, the chief has to balance needs, desires, financial capability and reality into
a communications plan that will serve the department into the future and provide the
simplest of tasks - pushing that transmit button and being able to relay information to
another person without exception.
Chief Joseph Estey, (Ret.)
Past President, The International Association of Chiefs of Police
Hartford Police Department—White River Junction, Vermont
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Characteristics of Radio Systems, Understanding Radio Terms
Radio technology is full of confusing terms that come straight from a physics book.
Sometimes when one asks a radio engineer a question, one gets an answer that is a
formula. The goal in this section is not to turn you into radio experts, but to help chiefs
understand the experts a little better when they talk to you.
Wave
The basic building block of radio communications is the radio wave. Like waves on the ocean,
a radio wave is merely a stream of repeating peaks and valley.
One big difference between ocean waves and radio waves is that ocean waves are visible, while
radio waves are not. People can see how far apart or how high the peaks are on the ocean.
Radio waves have those same characteristics, people just cannot see them.
Wavelength
The length of a wave is measured from one point to its next corresponding point. In other
words, the wavelength could be the distance from one peak to the next peak or from one
valley to the next valley and so on.
In radio terms, a short wavelength would mean that the peaks are relatively close together. A
long wavelength would mean that the peaks are relatively far apart.
Cycle
The entire pattern of the wave, before it begins to repeat itself, is called a cycle.
Frequency
Cycles repeat over time. The fact that they do is the basis for one of the most important terms
in radio communications–frequency. Frequency is defined as the number of cycles that occur
each second.
When they talk about frequency, radio engineers use a shorthand term for “cycles per second,”
which they call “Hertz.” (The word Hertz is usually shortened to “Hz” when written.) Both
terms mean the same thing.
Thousands of radio wave cycles usually repeat themselves each second, so engineers have
adopted the practice of writing kilohertz (shortened to KHz), which means 1,000 cycles per
second, megahertz (MHz), which means one million cycles per second, or gigahertz (GHz),
which means 1 billion cycles per second, when they refer to radio frequency. Thus, 10 million
cycles per second can also be written as 10 MHz.
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Frequency and wavelength are inversely related. In other words, the higher the frequency, the
shorter the wavelength, and conversely, the lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength.
At extremely high frequencies (above 30 GHz), the distance between the peaks of the wave
becomes so small (1 centimeter or less) that a raindrop would not fit between them. In fact,
at these extremely high frequencies, it is possible for rainy weather to disrupt the wave and
distort or completely block the resulting signal.
Spectrum and Bands
The complete range of possible frequencies that are now used or could be used for radio
communications is called the spectrum. The audible frequency range is usually considered to
span from 20 to 18,000 cycles per second or Hertz. For practical purpose, the useful radio
spectrum ranges from approximately 30 KHz up to more than 300 GHz.
Radio professionals often discuss frequencies by grouping them into ranges, which are called
bands. The bands are often referred to by names like HF (high frequency), VHF (very high
frequency), UHF (ultra-high frequency), SHF (superhigh frequency), EHF (extremely high
frequency), and infrared.
Public Safety Bands
Two of the radio frequency bands are of particular interest to law enforcement agencies
installing their own mobile radio systems. These are the VHF and UHF bands, whose ranges
are designated as VHF 30–300 MHz and UHF 300–3,000 MHz.
Channels
The Federal Communications Commissions (FCC) arbitrarily groups frequencies into
categories they call channels. When the FCC licenses a channel to you, it specifically
identifies the center frequency (sometimes called carrier frequency) for the channel. This
central frequency is the main frequency for carrying the information to be transmitted. Thus,
the radio information is transmitted over the several frequencies contained within a single
channel. The more frequencies in a channel, the greater its width (called bandwidth), and the
greater the amount of information it can carry.
Generally, the wider the bandwidth, the more information may be transmitted. However,
with microprocessors and sophisticated software techniques, more information can now
be sent through less bandwidth than was possible just a decade ago. As a result, spectrum
efficiency has improved.
Mobile Radio System Frequencies
The FCC has assigned frequencies so that there are typically 25 KHz between channels in
the UHF band. In other words, a 460 MHz frequency assignment (the center frequency)
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means that the information transmission falls between 459,987.5 KHz and 460,012.5 KHz
(i.e. 12.5 KHz on either side of the center frequency).
In its goal to promote the efficient use of the spectrum, the FCC is changing most of the
bandwidths of radio channels below 512 MHz in a process it calls “refarming.” It is presently
reducing channel bandwidths by half and will reduce the bandwidths by half again in the year
2006.
Frequencies covering TV channels 60–69 have been reallocated from television to private
use and public safety use. The 24 MHz of public safety spectrum includes the 764–776 and
794–806 MHz portions of this band. The FCC has required that all systems in this band
employ digital modulation. The band has been split into two sections. The voice portion of
this spectrum is based on 6.25 KHz channel width building blocks that can be combined
up to 25 KHz maximum. The use of conventional equipment using the project 25 common
air interface standard is required on the 64 interoperability voice channels designated in
this band. The wideband data portion of this band is built on 50 KHz building blocks that
can be combined up to 150 KHz maximum, with an interoperability standard now under
development for interoperability data channels.
Spectrum planning in this band is under the auspices of Regional Planning Committees in
the same manner as the earlier 800 MHz and NPSPAC band. The FCC formed a Federal
Advisory Committee called the National Coordination Committee (NCC) to assist it in
developing operational and technical guidelines for this band. Reports and Recommendations
from the NCC are available on the FCC Web site.
Frequency Selection Considerations
Coverage—In general, the lower the frequency, the better the coverage for a given
power level. VHF low band has the best coverage for a given effective radiated power
(ERP).
Building Penetration—UHF frequencies with shorter wavelengths (typically within
the range of 200 MHz to 2000 MHz) have better building penetration through
building openings, such as windows and doors, than do VHF frequencies below
200 MHz.
Skip—At VHF low band, stations can experience “skip” (the radio wave reflects
from the ionosphere during the height of the sunspot cycle), often causing so much
interference that local communications cannot be carried out.
Noise—Natural and man-made noise is worse the lower the frequency. Higher bands
experience much less noise interference.
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Antenna Size—The lower the frequency, the larger the antennas for a given amount
of gain.
Transmitters and Receivers
Base, mobile, and handheld radios consist of components called transmitters and receivers. In
most cases, some circuitry is used for both transmitting and receiving, so a radio is said to be
a transceiver.
Transmitters
A transmitter generates a radio wave or signal. The frequency generating component is called
an oscillator. Frequency multipliers multiply the frequency up to the final output frequency.
A power amplifier increases the power signal to obtain the necessary power output to the
antenna.
The output frequency is a continuous wave (CW) called a carrier. Intelligence is added to
the transmitter by varying the amplitude of the carrier (amplitude modulation or AM) or by
varying the frequency of the carrier (frequency or phase modulation of FM).
Receivers
The receiver is the opposite of the transmitter. It receives the modulated carrier, processes it,
and sends it to a detector section, which strips off the modulation signal from the carrier to
restore the original intelligence.
Radio systems are generally designed for AM or FM. Voice transmission is produced using
a microphone at the input of the transmitter and loud speaker at the output of the receiver.
The signals are usually analog, or continuous, signals.
Data are transmitted using binary signals. One simple method of transmitting a binary signal
uses frequency shift keying (FSK). A zero is represented by transmitting a particular carrier
frequency, and a one is represented by shifting the carrier frequency to a different frequency
(usually with less than 1,000 Hz difference). The receiver interprets the ones and zeroes and
reconstructs the binary data stream.
This is just one simple scheme for transmitting data. Most of today’s systems use more
complex methods to maximize spectrum efficiency.
All communications receivers used in dispatch-type communications have squelch circuits
before the audio circuits, which keeps the output off when there is no signal (so that you do
not have to listen to noise) and passes the detected signal through when the correctly coded
signal is received.
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Antennas
An antenna allows a radio transmitter to send energy into space and allows a receiver to
pick up energy from space. Generally, the higher an antenna is above the ground, the larger
coverage of the radio signal.
The fundamental antenna is the dipole, which consists of a wire or rigid metal rod. A dipole’s
length is set to approximately one-half the wavelength of the carrier frequency. Thus, a 300
MHz carrier, with a wavelength of 1 meter, would need to a use a dipole that ½ meter long.
Assuming the wire is vertical, the three-dimensional radiation pattern is omnidirectional
around the wire in the horizontal plane and is donut shaped in the vertical plane.
(Omnidirectional means that the same amount of radiation can be measured the entire way
around, at any given cross-section of the donut.)
If the antenna is vertical to the earth’s surface, its electric field will be vertical, and the
antenna is said to have vertical polarization. If the antenna is horizontal and the electric field
is parallel to the earth’s surface, the polarization is horizontal. Almost all mobile operations
use vertical polarization.
Antenna Gain
Antennas are the transmitting and receiving elements of a radio system. Gain is the focusing
of the antenna’s radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic energy toward certain directions.
By focusing the energy from or to a dipole antenna in a particular direction, you can increase
the effective transmitted power outward toward that direction plus increase the received signal
strength from the direction. This is important for two reasons: 1) you may be able to use less
power to transmit a signal for the same signal level at a receiving site; and 2) interfering signals
from the other directions will decrease in level causing less radio frequency interference for you.
Gain is important because of its relationship to RF power requirements. For example, if the
gain at a base station is doubled in the direction of a mobile, the mobile receiver will receive
twice the signal strength power. Similarly, a mobile transmitting toward the base station
will have twice the signal strength at the base station. Plus, potential co-channel interfering
signals coming from other directions will be lessened with respect to the desired signal.
To summarize, by increasing the gain (or directivity) of an antenna in a two-way radio circuit,
you may save money by buying a less powerful transmitter, achieve higher received signal
levels from stations in the gain direction, and discriminate against signals on the frequency
from other directions.
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Types of Antennas
Base Station Antennas—Most base station antennas are omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane (azimuth) so that mobile and portable radios may communicate with a
base station from any direction.
Directional Antennas—If you need to direct the RF energy in one direction and
do not need an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane, an antenna may be
constructed to shape the pattern toward the single direction. The patterns in both the
horizontal and vertical planes are focused and increase the gain considerably over an
omnidirectional dipole.
Mobile Antennas—The simplest mobile antenna is a quarterwave whip antenna. It
consists of a single vertical element, approximately 1/4 wavelength long, mounted onto
the metal roof of an automobile, and is called a monopole. The roof acts as a “ground
plane” reflector so that the antenna radiation pattern emulates a dipole antenna.
At VHF low band (50 MHz), a quarter wave monopole antenna is about 5 feet long.
As the frequency is increased, the length of a monopole antenna is reduced. At 850
MHz, a monopole is only 3.5 inches long.
Portable Antennas—Portable radios usually use helically wound or rod antennas
attached to the radio. These are usually less efficient than base or mobile antennas.
There are also times when your body is between the portable and the base with which
it is communicating, causing a decrease in signal. In addition, the height of the portable
antenna (belt mounted versus a lapel-mounted speaker microphone antenna) can make
a significant difference in radio coverage. All of these characteristics must be accounted
for in designing a system.
Smart Antennas—A major development has occurred in the design of “smart antenna
arrays” which are able to adjust to their environment so that they enhance desired
received signals while discriminating against interference from undesired signals. The
antennas are made of a large number of antenna elements each of which are controlled
using computer technology in near real-time.
Smart antennas adapt themselves automatically toward the direction of incoming
desired signals via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP, a series of microprocessors
change the phase and amplitude of the elements to focus the antenna pattern in
the desired directions while discriminating against interfering signals. The most
sophisticated antenna arrays are able to adjust to many different desired signals via space
division multiple access (SDMA) so as to process the antenna lobes to accommodate the
signals simultaneously.
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Although smart antennas are quite costly, the economical trade-off is increasing the capacity
of antenna systems to support an increased number of users.
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
A term used in land mobile radio to indicate the “effective” power radiating from the antenna.
ERP in decibels (dB) equals the transmitter power output into the transmission line, less the
losses in the transmission system (including that of the transmission line, filters, couplers,
etc.) plus the gain of the antenna in dBd.
ERP is a fictitious number indicating the effectiveness of a transmission as compared to that
of a transmitter connected to a dipole with no transmission losses. There is a real point to it.
To the receiver listening to this transmission, the transmission will be 3dB stronger than it
would if it came from the same transmitter using a cable with no loss and a dipole antenna.
Interference
With the advent of cellular, Personal Communications Systems (PCS), specialized mobile
radio (SMR) and enhanced specialized mobile radio (ESMR) systems, many new antenna
installations must be made throughout the country. To minimize the number of new antenna
sites (and associated towers), installations with a multitude of radios combined on a few
antennas are becoming more prevalent.
As the number of radios and antennas is increased at a site, the interference potential of
generating and/or receiving spurious signals is increased. Therefore, filters and isolators
(discussed in the next section) must be added to the antenna circuits. Usually, the last station
to build at the site causes the interference and is responsible for the additional filtering
equipment. Some sites have full-time managers who screen an applicant’s plans to anticipate
any interference potential.
Radiation
A potential problem of exposure to harmful radiation exists around transmitting antennas.
Service personnel in the vicinity of a tower or climbing a tower could be exposed to harmful
radiation. It may be necessary to reduce power or shut down transmitters before climbing a
tower. Wearable exposure alarms are available to warn of excessive radiation.
The radiation danger is highest when there are high-power broadcast stations at common
sites. Radiation exposure requirements for the public are less than for personnel associated
with the site. To help prevent public exposure, security fences usually are constructed around
towers, and the fences are posted with “Hazardous RF” signs.
Local Regulations Controlling Antennas
Most cities have zoning ordinances that control the use of land for radio sites. These usually
include maximum tower heights and setbacks, as well as the antenna types and radiation
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characteristics. Usually an application for a radio site is prepared by an applicant and submitted
to the zoning board for processing and a recommendation. County commissioners or city
council members have the final approval. Members of the public often have the opportunity to
voice their opinions regarding the aesthetics and requested use of the site before approval. It is
not unusual for a government entity to add stipulations for disguising a tower and antenna.
Radio Coverage
One of the most important characteristics of a radio system is its coverage. That is, it is
important to know exactly where the base or repeater station signals may be received
by mobile or handheld radios and exactly where mobile or handheld radio stations may
be heard by a base or repeater station. All parameters must be placed into one of several
computer models (called propagation models) to get a reasonably accurate output. These
include transmitter power out, transmission line losses, antenna gain and directivity, foliage
losses, building losses (if required), receiver sensitivity, and antenna and transmission line
characteristics.
Mobile and handheld radios differ from base stations due to their lower power and to poorer
antenna efficiency. Coverage patterns should be made for each kind of radio used in a system
so that you know exactly where to expect coverage. If you don’t know that an officer’s portable
radio transmission will not be heard at a repeater, it could put the officer’s life in jeopardy.
Coverage should always be verified by running actual tests after a system is constructed. There
are testing procedures available from some of the larger system suppliers.
Duplexers, Combiners, Multicouplers
Duplexers, combiners, and multicouplers are components that make it possible to connect
multiple transmitters and receivers to antennas. These important filtering and isolating
components are used in a radio system to optimize its operation and minimize interference
with itself as well as other systems.
A single repeater, consisting of a transmitter and a receiver operating on different frequencies,
is most often connected to a common antenna. If the transmitter energy gets into the
receiver, it can burn out the front-end components or cause severe interference in the receiver
and, as a result, in your overall system.
You can use two antennas, one above the other, but this configuration may still not provide
enough isolation. Therefore, a duplexer may be used to increase the isolation and to keep the
transmission from interfering with received signals.
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Duplexers
To shield the receiver from the transmitter, cavity filters are often added in the transmitter
and receiver transmission lines to form a circuit called a duplexer. There are several
configurations.
Combiners
When trunked radio systems are used with a multitude of transmitters connected to an
antenna, a circuit element called a combiner is used to combine the output signals. The
combiner allows the transmitter outputs to be coupled together, sending the output power of
each transmitter to the antenna with minimal loss.
An additional element may be used in the circuit between each transmitter and the combiner
to increase isolation to the other transmitter outputs. Such an element is called an isolator.
If there is inadequate isolation, the mixing of the transmitted signals can cause the generation
of additional frequencies called intermodulation products, or IM products, which may cause
interference to nearby receivers.
Multicouplers
A device similar to a combiner, called a multicoupler, is used to connect a multitude of receivers
to a single antenna. Usually, a multicoupler contains an amplifier that covers all the receiving
frequencies and then splits and sends each signal to its particular receiver.
Multiple Access Systems
Several cellular radio systems are used to improve spectrum efficiency, allowing more users
to employ a channel or frequency band. The primary technologies used today are frequency
division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division
multiple access (CDMA). Public safety radio systems primarily use FDMA and TDMA
technologies.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
The original cellular radio channels were 30 KHz wide and accommodated one voice signal
subscriber. As the number of subscribers increased, some cellular radio companies opted to
divide the 30 KHz channels into three 10 KHz channels, which would allow a 3:1 increase in
subscribers. The process is called frequency division.
Multiple access is accomplished by the cellular radio system control computer having the
ability to assign each of the channels to different subscribers. When one subscriber has
completed a call or moves into a new cell, the channel may be reassigned to another
subscriber.
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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Another scheme used by cellular companies is to take the same 30 KHz channel, but instead
of dividing it into three narrower channels, it is set up for transmission in three time periods
so that three subscribers still use the total 30 KHz; now each subscriber would talk for onethird of the time, thus increasing the number of users by 3:1. By allowing each subscriber to
talk for a few milliseconds in rotation, three conversations now take place within the same 30
KHz channel.
For time division transmission to work, the voice signal must be digitized by a vocoder
(voice coder) and each digitized signal is sent in sequence over the 30 KHz spectrum. The
subscriber’s phone must be perfectly synchronized with the transmission so that it only
decodes the desired subscriber’s signal in its vocoder. Cell phone and PCS companies have
found that by using TDMA, up to eight subscribers may use the same 30 KHz spectrum.
Multiple access is accomplished in the same manner as in FDMA above.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
A digital modulation that uses spectrum spreading techniques and is more complex
than either FDMA or TDMA. The transmission spectrum is always much wider than
that required for a single transmission, allowing many simultaneous transmissions to be
interspersed within the same bandwidth.
Two types of systems are used: frequency hopping and direct sequence. Both systems use
vocoders to digitize the signal.
• Frequency Hopping
The frequency hopping concept is easy to visualize. The transmitter changes frequency every few milliseconds in a prescribed manner as it transmits information. A perfectly synchronized receiver follows the frequency change sequences of the transmitter from one frequency to another to receive the information.
• Direct Sequence
In the direct sequence CDMA, the transmitted digital signals are coded by a “spreading algorithm” in each transmitter. Each receiver has a decoder that deciphers the spread signal and recovers the voice. By using several different spreading codes within each algorithm, this system accommodates many different users at the same time.
Current Public Safety Radio Systems
Two-Way Simplex Radio Systems
Two-way radio systems using one frequency are called simplex radio systems. Base stations,
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mobiles, and handheld radios communicate on a single frequency. All new equipment being
placed into service today for both VHF (excepting the 220 MHz band) and UHF bands is
required to be 12.5 and 15 KHz wide, respectively, as required by part 90 of the FCC Rules.
However, users with 25 and 30 KHz bandwidth equipment may continue to use their existing
systems.
Base stations usually have high antenna installations to make sure that they can attain the
desired radio coverage area. One problem with a simplex system is that handheld and mobile
radios cannot communicate very far with each other because of their low antenna heights and
are usually limited to just a few miles in flat terrain. Therefore, the person at the base station
must repeat transmissions from one mobile to another. To alleviate this situation, the mobile
relay or repeater was developed.
Two-Way Mobile Relay Systems
Two-way mobile relay systems are also called mobile repeaters, or just plain repeaters. In this
discussion, these terms are used interchangeably.
The repeater makes use of two frequencies. The repeater radio functions as an amplified relay
station receiving high or low-power base stations, low-level mobile, and handheld radio
signals, changing their frequency, amplifying the signals, and re-transmitting them on the
repeater output frequency. Repeaters are generally installed on the highest points within the
coverage areas, including high buildings and mountaintops where the topography allows for
maximum coverage and penetration. Thus, regardless of the output or the antenna heights
on handheld, mobile, and base radios, the repeater signal is always the same strength at any
receiving site.
Twice the bandwidth of a simplex system is now required, further aggravating the spectrum
efficiency problem. Voice FM simplex and repeater radio systems suffer from other
disadvantages too. For example, when a base or repeater station is placed on a high point, it
can cover distances of 60 miles or more in radius and thus, although not usually needed by
the licensee, negates the option of relicensing the frequency to another user up to 120 miles
from the licensee.
Repeater Innovations
Repeater stations are usually high-power stations, 600 to 3,500 watts ERP, and cover a large
area. Handheld radios, with their low output power of 0.5 to 3 watts ERP, are often unable
to be heard at the repeater site, particularly in hilly or mountainous terrain or in urban
areas having numerous tall buildings. To correct this power imbalance, one or more satellite
receiving sites may be set up in these coverage areas close to the low-power radios to receive
the low-power signals. Each satellite receiver’s output is sent via telephone line or microwave
radio transmission to a signal comparator at a central site, where the strongest signal is
selected through “voting” and utilized to drive the repeater.
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Another scheme used where there are problems transmitting to and receiving from mobiles
and handheld radios due to large changes in topography requires several repeaters at different
locations that may be switched at a central position, usually at the police communications
dispatch center, to the repeater receiving the highest signal level. In this way the signal is
“steered” toward the station.
Where very large areas are to be covered, for example several counties, simulcast systems
using multiple repeaters operating on the same frequency may be employed. In this case,
all transmitters operate simultaneously and send a composite signal to receivers in the field.
Special emphasis must be placed on frequency stability of the carriers, for they must be
within a few Hertz at all stations; the modulation must be transmitted at exactly the same
time, or there will be interference in the overlap zones of the repeaters.
Frequency and time stability can be accomplished by the use of microwave communications
systems or by using the clock signals received from a global satellite system (such as GPS).
Mobile Repeaters
Small vehicular repeaters have been used to relay transmissions from handheld radios
through the main vehicle radio to headquarters when an officer is in an area where he or
she cannot reach the base repeater. An example of this is when an investigator, located
in the concrete basement of a shopping center, can use a small 450 MHz repeater in the
investigator’s vehicle to bridge communications between the basement and headquarters.
These repeaters have been used traditionally in the 150 and 450 MHz bands, and the concept
is being explored for 800 MHz use by agencies and frequency coordinators.
Trunked Radio Systems
Public safety organizations have traditionally used dedicated repeaters. For example, in many
communities, separate repeaters are used by the police department, the fire department,
administrative departments, and road maintenance department, although the transmission
loading is unequal for the departments most of the time.
If a police department needs to use two repeaters for operation and the road maintenance
department’s repeater is available, the police department may be unable to use it. To use
it requires that the police department’s mobiles tune their receivers to road maintenance’s
frequency and that the police dispatch has an extra base station to contact the road
maintenance repeater. This scenario is not very practical.
A repeater cannot be borrowed by another user, so it often sits vacant on a usable frequency
while a user needing to transmit more information on his or her radio system must wait
until their own repeater is free. To solve this problem and to improve the spectrum efficiency,
the industry developed a “trunked” system concept borrowed from the telephone company
industry.
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One can think of this as a box containing a number of repeaters, each of which may be
switched into a radio circuit as needed. For example, if there are five trunked repeaters and
repeaters #1 and #2 are in use, a central controller will designate #3 as the next repeater to
be used when the need arises. If #1, #3, #4, and #5 are in use, it will designate #2 for the next
user. In this way, repeaters do not stand vacant and the spectrum is more fully used.
When it issued rules for the 800 MHz band, the FCC required that most licensees requiring
five or more channels must use a trunked radio scheme. Systems in place before the regulation
was issued are “grandfathered in” and may continue to add single repeater stations as necessary.
Two technological breakthroughs have made trunked radio systems possible: 1. the
development of microprocessors and personal computers, with their associated software and
2. synthesized frequency generators. Microprocessors allow the logical selection of frequencies
for the repeaters. Frequency synthesizers at the repeater and mobile and portable stations allow
the radios to set up individual transmitting and receiving frequencies as designated by the base
station microprocessor called the “central controller.”
One scheme used to inform the central controller that there is a need for a repeater is a
dedicated data control channel (repeater), which monitors mobiles and handheld stations
at the base station. If a user desires to speak with another user or a group of users, he or she
initiates a transmission on the data control channel indicating his or her ID number and
requesting that he or she talk with another user or a group of users by indicating the group’s or
individual’s ID number. The control channel repeater acknowledges the transmission, and the
central controller determines the available repeater and commands the initiator and the target
station(s) to change their operating frequencies to that of the assigned repeater. Typically
within 1/4 second, a voice conversation may then take place. After the conversation, the
radios return to monitoring the control channel and the central controller determines that the
repeater is now available for other use. Note that these systems are totally software driven.
Trunked radio systems are generally used in the 700/800/900 MHz bands. The latest FCC
rules now allow for trunking on public safety spectrum below 512 MHz, provided that these
systems do not interfere with existing radio systems in surrounding areas.
Specialized Mobile Radio (SMR)—Besides local government and law enforcement,
trunked radio systems are used by large electric, gas, oil, and other industries to improve
their efficiencies. A specific class of service, called “specialized mobile radio” was designated
by the FCC to allow the set up of trunked systems that could be used to sell radio services to
commercial and government users.
The channel bandwidth set up for trunked activities is 30 KHz wide in the 800/900 MHz
band. Original applicants used analog radios; however, enhanced specialized mobile radio has
been the name given for digital SMR systems.
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220 MHz Narrow Bandwidth Band
The FCC reallocated the frequencies from 220 to 222 MHz for narrow bandwidth
communications use. The channel bandwidth in this frequency band is only 5 KHz so as many
as six channels may be substituted for a single 30 KHz FM channel (e.g., six signals where there
was one, with a subsequent increase in spectrum efficiency of 5:1). The FCC has auctioned off
frequencies in this band for regional and nationwide licensing.
Cellular Radio/Telephone Systems
Originally, two licenses were awarded in each coverage area: one to a wire company and the
other to a wireless company in almost all metropolitan and rural areas. The cellular scheme
allows for a large number of users over a given coverage area to connect to the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). A great deal of the United States is now covered by
cellular radio, and many law enforcement departments use cellular to supplement their radio
communications systems.
The cellular system employs a number of coverage cells within a geographical area. Each cell
uses a trunked radio system to supply repeaters to users within the cell. Cells are connected
to a Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) by trunked phone lines, fiberoptic cables,
or microwave links. Cells can range from 30 miles down to 0.5 miles in diameter. When a
cell reaches the maximum capacity of subscribers, it may be divided in two by adding new
antennas and trunked radios and reducing power output to double the original capacity.
When a cellular telephone is turned on, it automatically registers with the local cellular carrier,
and an indicator shows whether there is sufficient signal to connect to a cell. When a number
is called, a dedicated radio control channel receives the information and sends it through the
MTSO to the PSTN system to ring the called person’s number. When the call is answered,
the MTSO sets up a dedicated cell repeater for the subscriber to use for the conversation.
If a call is made from the PSTN to a cellular subscriber, a set of dedicated paging channels at
all the cell sites calls the subscriber’s number. When the subscriber’s cell phone hears the page,
the called subscriber answers the cell phone and the phone signals back through the control
channel that the call has been answered. This triggers the MTSO to set up a repeater for the
conversation. When the subscriber hangs up, the MTSO releases the channel for another call,
as described above.
Characteristics of cellular systems include:
• A very large number of subscribers can be accommodated.
• As the subscriber numbers in a cell reach the cell capacity, the cell may be divided to
double its capacity.
• By keeping the transmitter power low in each cell, transmitting frequencies may be
repeated in nearby cells, thus increasing spectrum efficiency.
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• Cellular radio systems tend to be very reliable even under the worst environmental
conditions.
• With the various modulation schemes now being used, every cell phone does not work
every system. However, multimode phones have been developed to solve this problem.
Personal Communications Systems (PCS)
Because of the need for more frequencies for personal communications and the popularity and
demand for cellular radio, the FCC reallocated several megahertz of frequencies in the 900
MHz range and a large portion of the 2 GHz band for PCS.
Some seven different de facto technical approaches to these new cellular radio systems exist,
so a telephone used in one system will not necessarily work with another. Some confusion also
exists between the 800 MHz cellular services and the 2 GHz PCS cellular services because
of advertising claims. Today, technologies used for cellular and PCS are basically the same
and the offerings are very similar. However, PCS has the potential to provide other services in
addition to cellular.
Point-To-Point Microwave Communications Systems
Often you need to connect telephone circuits from one terminal to another, voice and control
circuits to repeaters and trunked systems, voting receiver inputs from satellite sites to a
comparator, T1 (1.5 Mbps) or T3 (45 Mbps) data circuits, and other communications circuits
from one point to another point. Generally, these needs may be fulfilled economically and
reliably by leasing wire or fiber-optic circuits from the local telephone or cable company.
When a telephone company expands capacity, it usually overbuilds to allow for future
customers. If the circuits exist, leasing payments involve only operational and maintenance
costs. However, if the circuits do not exist, you must pay the up-front capital costs involved in
constructing the new facilities.
The economies of building a private microwave system usually are in your favor when it is
necessary to provide service to an area that would require new facility construction by the
telephone company. The microwave bands include frequencies generally above 960 MHz, or
approximately 1 GHz. (Frequency bands used for commercial purposes are in the 960 MHz
and 2, 4, 6, 11, 18, and 23 GHz areas.) The 960 MHz band can be used to transmit up to
15 narrowband voice or data channels; the other frequency bands have considerably wider
bandwidths to accommodate many more voice and data channels. Microwave systems may be
either analog or digital radio systems.
Microwave propagation is considered “line of sight” (LOS), so transmissions must be repeated
at approximately 25-mile increments in bands up to 12 GHz. In mountain areas, the spacing
may be as great as 60 miles. Above 10 GHz, rain attenuation usually causes a distance
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limitation, so repeaters must be more closely spaced depending upon the amount of rain in
different parts of the country.
Microwave System Engineering and Licensing—A typical microwave system requires
several engineering criteria to be met. The first is that the path between two microwave
terminals must be free of obstacles which might impair the wave front as it travels between
terminals. The second requirement is the signal strength must be high enough to meet
either the signal to noise ratio requirements (for an analog radio system) or the bit error rate
requirements (for a digital radio system) for a maximum allowable path outage time. The last
condition is the path must be free from either causing interference to another microwave
communications user or receiving interference from another user.
Most microwave communications systems require FCC licensing under Part 101 of the FCC
Rules and Regulations. Frequency coordination is required and the applicant must utilize the
FCC’s Universal Licensing System (ULS) at the FCC Web site (see resources in appendix B)
for all applications.
The technology, often called 802.11 after the designation assigned to this class of standards
by the Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers (IEEE) who developed the standards, is
an alphabet soup of protocols.
Adapted from Understanding Wireless Communications Public Safety: A Guidebook to Technology
Issues, Planning and Management, 2003 with permission from the National Law Enforcement and
Corrections Technology Center. Further reproduction without express written permission is strictly
prohibited.
http://www.nlectc.org
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Things to Consider
Source: Why Can’t We Talk? Working Together To Bridge the Communications Gap To Save
Lives—A Guide for Public Officials
Purchasing radios, whether they are portable units to be carried by officers,
two-way mobile units to be installed in vehicles or base radios, can be a confusing and
complicated task. Many units far exceed the basic needs of departments and can have
impressive, but useless options and capabilities. A careful analysis of what the current
and, more importantly, future need will be is critical to keep the purchase efficient,
effective and justifiable.
• Can the equipment being purchased accommodate future growth, development
and enhancements, particularly in the area of communications interoperability
projects (programmable for future frequencies, development of encryption, etc.)?
• What are the options and costs for service contract, maintenance agreements
and available warranty? Will service be expedited or will the unit be out of
operation for an extended period of time? Is service local or must it be shipped
out of the area and who bears shipping costs?
• Is equipment compatible with other existing communications equipment both
within the department and locally?
• Cost and availability of optional equipment (remote microphones, earpieces,
holsters, antennas, etc.), consumables (batteries)?
• Cost of installation and programming?
• Does the size and fit of equipment work with the existing infrastructure?
Departments need to adopt a replacement plan for communications equipment.
Whether it is a capital expenditure plan that sets aside funds each year for the eventual
replacement of a base radio or regular replacement of handheld or mobile units each
year, agencies must realize that communications equipment will wear out or become
obsolete and will need to be replaced over time.
True communications interoperability within and between operational jurisdictions is
a broad goal that all agencies should work toward. Even if at the beginning it’s just to
assure that current purchases are for equipment that can eventually be programmed or
retrofitted for interoperability. This will likely be the standard for sometime to come.
Chief Joeseph Estey, (Ret.)
Past President, The International Association of Chiefs of Police
Hartford Police Department—White River Junction, Vermont
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Interoperability
Did You Know?
Five years to the day before the 9/11 terrorist attack, the Public Safety Wireless Advisory
Committee (PSWAC) reported that “unless immediate measures are taken to alleviate
spectrum shortfall and promote interoperability, public safety will not be able to adequately
discharge their obligation to protect life and property in a safe, efficient, and cost effective
manner.”
When the police were in trouble, they could pick up the radio anywhere, anytime, and help
would instantly arrive. In reality, this is often not the case. We all watched in horror as the
second tower of the World Trade Center collapsed. Did you know that police received the
radio message that the building was going to collapse, but firefighters never received that
message because they use different radios?
• Did you know that the police, EMS teams, and firefighters sometimes have to juggle
as many as five different radios because each agency communicates on different
systems?
• Did you know that first responders had to use runners to carry messages from one
command center to another in the immediate aftermath of the Oklahoma City
bombing because they did not have common radio systems?
• Do you know how often agencies cannot talk to one another or to agencies in their
neighboring cities, counties, or states? Is yours one of them?
While events of the magnitude of 9/11 or Oklahoma City do not occur every day, there are
many daily events that require different agencies and jurisdictions to be able to communicate
with one another. Incidents such as traffic accidents, missing children, fires, high speed chases,
rescues, and chemical spills occur with frightening regularity and they know no boundaries.
When they occur in your community, will your agencies be able to talk to one another?
Why Can’t They Talk?
Public safety agencies historically have depended upon their own stand alone radio
communication systems and they are often incompatible with one another. Not only are
there different systems for different agencies within one community, different jurisdictions
maintain their own systems, too. There are approximately 2.5 million public safety first
responders in the United States. They work for 18,000 state and local law enforcement
agencies, 26,000 fire departments, and more than 6,000 rescue departments, plus Federal law
enforcement, tribal law enforcement, and other agencies, such as state and federal emergency
management, transportation, and the public utilities who all need to talk to one another
during critical incidents
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Who Is Public Safety?
According to definitions from the Public Safety Wireless Advisory Committee (PSWAC),
public safety service providers perform emergency first response missions to protect and
preserve life, property, and natural resources and to serve the public welfare through local,
state, or federal governments as prescribed by law. Public safety support providers include
those whose primary mission might not fall within the classic public safety definition, but
who may provide vital support to the general public and/or the public safety official. Law
enforcement, fire, and EMS fit the first category, while transportation or public utility
workers fit the second. Public safety service providers also include nongovernmental
organizations who perform public safety functions on behalf of the government. For example,
a number of local governments contract with private groups for emergency medical services.
Why Is This Important to You?
The public looks to you, their elected and appointed officials, to provide basic public safety
and guidance and management during a crisis. You are responsible for making critical
funding decisions using scarce taxpayer dollars. You understand the political dynamics in
your community and in the surrounding jurisdictions. Citizens expect the public sector to
function like a business–consistent and effective customer service, everywhere and at any
time. Ultimately, the public expects their lives and property to be protected by all levels of
government local, state, or federal without distinction as to who responds to their needs.
Understanding the current status of public safety radio communication systems in your
community its capabilities and limitations and plans for upgrading or replacing those systems
is critical. If your public safety agencies cannot communicate directly with one another by
radio to coordinate lifesaving activities, inevitably some lives will be lost. What can be done?
What Is Interoperability?
Interoperability is ability of public safety agencies to talk to one another via radio
communications systems—to exchange voice and/or data with one another on demand, in
real-time, when needed. Most people assume that public safety is already interoperable. In
many cases, public safety officials can’t even talk to their own agencies.
Equally as critical as interoperability is the need for basic communications within public
safety agencies. When the issue of interoperability is raised, officials respond that they are
unable to even talk to their own personnel. The first priority must be to provide public safety
with mission-critical radio communication systems that provide reliable agency specific
police, fire, EMS communications. (Mission-critical radio communications are those required
when life or property is at stake). As jurisdictions build or upgrade current systems, that
prority should be expanded to include the provision of reliable and interoperable local and
regional communications, and ultimately reliable and interoperable local, sate, and federal
communications.
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Why Aren’t Public Safety Communications Already Interoperable?
There are five key reasons existing communication systems are not currently interoperable:
incompatible and aging communications equipment, limited and fragmented funding,
limited and fragmented planning, a lack of cooperation and coordination, and limited and
fragmented radio spectrum.
• Different jurisdictions use different equipment and different radio frequencies that
cannot communicate with one another, just as different computer operating systems
will not work together or an AM receiver will not accept an FM signal. There are
limited uniform standards for technology and equipment.
• There is limited funding to replace or update expensive communications equipment,
and different communications and levels of government have their own budget cycles
and funding priorities.
• Planning is limited and fragmented. Without adequate planning, time and money can
be disappointing. Agencies, jurisdictions, and levels of government compete for scare
dollars, inhibiting the partnership and leadership required to develop interoperability.
Why Can’t They Just Use Cell Phones?
Unfortunately it’s not that simple. Although public safety personnel regularly
use cellular phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other commercial
wireless devices and services, these devices are currently not sufficiently suited for
public safety mission-critical communications during critical incidents. Public
safety officials cannot depend upon commercial systems that can be overloaded
and unavailable. Experience has shown such systems are often the most
unreliable during critical incidents when public demand overwhelms the systems.
Public safety officials have unique and demanding communications requirements.
Optimal public safety radio communication systems require:
• Dedicated channels and priority access that is available at all times to
handle unexpected emergencies
• Reliable one-to-many broadcast capability, a feature not generally
available in cellular systems
• Highly reliable and redundant networks that are engineered and
maintained to withstand natural disasters and other emergencies
• The best possible coverage within a given geographic area, with a
minimum of dead zones
• Unique equipment designed for quick response in emergency situations–
dialing, waiting for call connection, and busy signals are unacceptable
during critical events when seconds can mean the difference between life
and death
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• The human factor is a substantial obstacle–agencies are reluctant to give up
management and control of their communications systems.
• Interoperability requires a certain amount of shared management, control, and
policies and procedures.
• There is a limited and fragmented amount of radio spectrum available to public safety.
What Is Radio Spectrum?
It is electronic real estate the complete range of frequencies and channels that can be used
for radio communications. Spectrum is the highway over which voice, data, and image
communications travel. Radio spectrum, one of our Nation’s most valuable resources, is a finite
resource what exists today is all there ever will be.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has allocated certain frequencies or
channels to public safety, but it is inadequate and scattered widely in ten discrete bands across
the spectrum, making it difficult for different agencies
and jurisdictions to communicate. Initially, almost all
public safety communications were confined to the low
end of the frequency range, but as technology advanced
and improved, transmission at higher frequencies became
“Imagine a different
possible, offering a temporary solution for congestion and
public safety
crowding. The result is public safety operates in 10 separate
communications
bands,
which has added capacity, but which has also caused
future. A future where
the fragmentation that characterizes the public safety
emergency responses
spectrum today.
are coordinated, where
information is shared
in real-time, where
precious minutes
are not wasted and
where emergencies
are handled more
effectively and safely.”
Judi Wood
Chief Information
Officer—Maryland
Department of Public
Safety and Correctional
Services
How Can I Help My Constituents and Colleagues
Understand the Importance of Interoperability?
Your role as a public official provides you the unique
opportunity to take the initiative. Your constituents and
colleagues need to be educated about the importance of
an interoperable public safety communications system
that will make it possible for local, state, and federal
public safety agencies to talk to one another, to coordinate
lifesaving operations, and to provide a basic level of public
safety.
Public perceptions are shaped by the news shows and
articles, movies, and television that tell a different story
from the true state of public safety communications. The
public that reads news stories about computers in patrol
cars, amazing lifesaving technologies in rescue vehicles,
and the latest state of the art dispatch center may find it
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difficult to believe that their public safety agencies cannot
talk to one another.
This is a job that requires policymakers across jurisdictions
to work together for the common good—to plan,
fund, build, and govern interoperable public safety
communications systems. Policymakers at all levels
need to collaborate to develop radio communications
interoperability for emergency response and incident
prevention. It begins with a dialogue among the
stakeholders.
This is a job that
requires policy makers
across juridictions to
work together for the
common good—to plan,
fund, build, and govern
interoperable public
safety communications
systems.
What Is Your Role?
Creating interoperability requires leadership, planning,
and the development of partnerships among disparate groups at the local, state, and federal
level. In order to effectively respond to emergencies, all levels of government and industry
must plan for interoperability among all parties from the outset. The ability to be in voice
contact and exchange data among all emergency responders should be designed in from
the start. State and local governments must take the lead to collaboratively formulate an
interoperability architecture that provides a roadmap for all to follow. In short, public officials
at all levels of government should:
• Understand the importance of interoperability
• Be able to effectively communicate the benefits of interoperability to the public
• Understand the political and institutional barriers within the public safety community
that can impede interoperability
• Facilitate collaborative planning among local, state, and federal government agencies
• Encourage the development of flexible and open architectures and standards
• Support funding for public safety agencies that work to achieve interoperability within
an agreed upon plan
Where Are You Now? What Is the Status of Your Public Safety
Radio Communications?
The basic questions to consider are:
• What types of emergencies like traffic accidents typically occur in your community,
region, or state and which public safety agencies would respond to each of them?
• How about major crimes like bank robberies or large-scale fires or natural disasters
like hurricanes?
• Who needs to talk to one another every day?
• Who should be able to communicate and share data in the first eight hours of an
emergency?
• Who will need to be added to that initial group if the emergency continues for longer
than eight hours?
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Once you know the answers to these questions, assess your resources. For example, what
existing communications infrastructure such as radio towers do you already have? What
financial resources are budgeted for public safety communications? There are assessment
tools that can be used to determine the level of interoperability in your community, region,
or state.
How Much Will It Cost?
There are several issues to consider, including what is already being spent on public safety
communications in your area and how much it will cost if you don’t develop interoperability.
Planning for interoperability can be incorporated into the process of replacing and upgrading
radio communication systems. Individual costs will depend on the state of communications
in your area and which short and long-term direction you choose to follow. The nationwide
investment in radio systems and supporting infrastructures is substantial. As agencies
replace aging equipment and adopt new technologies, the amount of money invested in
communications equipment will continue to grow.
Solutions to this national issue can only be achieved through cooperation between
all levels of government.
How Can You Achieve Interoperability?
Interoperability begins with leadership and partnerships. It begins with open, equitable
discussions among all the stakeholders. Look beyond turf concerns and focus on partnerships.
Develop a common voice to facilitate budget and policy decisions. Strength in improving
interoperability is built by working together with agencies and jurisdictions that have
traditionally been viewed as competitors for scarce dollars.
Before developing the solution, define the problem by performing a complete assessment of
your current state of communications. This includes understanding what your first responders
need. Planning includes policies and procedures, building a governing structure, and
identifying potential resources.
This is not a “one size fits all” problem and there is no single solution. There are short and
long-term strategies for improving interoperability some involve improving coordination and
cooperation among responding agencies and jurisdictions. Other strategies require longer
term planning and implementation of new systems, policies, and operating procedures.
Expectations need to be realistic, solutions take time.
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Where Can I Learn More About Interoperability?
A guide collectively created by a task force of national associations representing public
officials at local and state levels, titled, Why Can’t We Talk? Working Together To Bridge the
Communications Gap To Save Lives, begins to answer these questions and more.
• Why Can’t Public Safety Agencies Talk?, discusses the definition of interoperability, the
importance of interoperability to public officials, and the role public officials play in
interoperability
• Five Key Reasons Why Public Safety Agencies Can’t Talk, discusses the barriers to
interoperability–incompatible and aging communications equipment, limited and
fragmented planning and funding, a lack of coordination and cooperation, and limited
and fragmented radio communications spectrum
• Are You Prepared?, discusses evaluation and assessment of public safety radio
communication systems and financial resources and provides interim technology
strategies to achieve interoperability
• How Can You Achieve Interoperability?, discusses planning for interoperability, and the
role of elected and appointed officials in the planning process
• Governance Structures for Improving Interoperability, discusses what a governance
structure is and why it is necessary, examples of mechanisms for creating governance
structures and the key element of leadership
• Funding Strategies for Achieving Interoperability, discusses developing a funding
strategy, cost-cutting measures, presenting the case for funding interoperability and
financing methods
• Why Radio Spectrum Matters to You, provides a historical perspective of spectrum,
a discussion of the additional spectrum that has been allocated but not yet made
available to public safety, and technologies that can increase the efficient use of
spectrum
Working Together
The inability of our public safety officials to readily communicate with one another threatens
the public’s safety and often results in unnecessary loss of lives and property. Recognizing that
solutions to this national issue can only be achieved through cooperation between all levels
of government, 18 national associations representing elected and appointed and public safety
officials worked together on the National Task Force on Interoperability (NTFI) to address
this issue.
The task force met several times in 2002 to engage in an interactive dialogue on
communications interoperability. The discussions provided an opportunity for public
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policymakers to partner their efforts with those of the public safety community to address
interoperability issues in a more comprehensive way. As a result of this dialogue, NTFI
developed Why Can’t We Talk? Working Together To Bridge the Communications Gap To Save
Lives to raise awareness about the importance of interoperability. It provides the basic
information necessary to understand the impact of this issue and guidance about the initial
steps to take in developing interoperable public safety radio communication systems.
Achieving interoperability is a challenging job. Without the collective voices of elected
and appointed officials, without partnership, cooperation, and leadership at all levels of
government, it is a job that will not get done. It is hoped that this guide will serve as a
catalyst for public officials to begin other, continuing dialogues with public officials in their
localities, regions, and States.
The National Task Force on Interoperability and Why Can’t We Talk? Working Together To Bridge the
Communications Gap To Save Lives—A Guide for Public Officials, 2003 were supported by the National
Institute of Justice’s (NIJ) CommTech Program
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/commtech
“We are working to get beyond the technical jargon to develop a common sense
language that the average person can understand. Quite simply, our task is to
find ways to achieve real-time communication between different communities,
jurisdictions, and responders so we can save more lives in a crisis.”
Vicki Barnett
Council Member
Farmington Hills—Michigan
“The task force brings local and state elected and appointed officials together with
representatives of the public safety community to develop national strategies for
solving this critical public safety need.”
Chief Harlin McEwen, (Ret.)
Communications Committee Chair–International Association of Chiefs of Police
Communications Advisor–MCC, NSA, MCSA
Ithaca Police Department—New York
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Challenges to Implementation
Source: Interoperability Continuum
The human factor within a law enforcement agency is often a major challenge to
implementation of a new radio system. Often chiefs make all the correct decisions about
the acquisition and installation of a new radio system but fail to include the officers in
the decision making process. Veteran officers have long standing habits, some good and
some bad. These more senior officers, who frequently are agencies’ field training officers,
greatly influence the newer members of the staff when it comes to the proper operation
of equipment.
Including all the members of your agency in the decision making process makes for an
excellent transition during the planning and implementation phases of new equipment.
Proper training, prior to implementing the new equipment, will be much smoother
because you have included everyone in the entire process. Staff will have a better
understanding of not only how the equipment operates but also how it benefits the
department and the community.
Additional implementation challenges are addressed by the policies and procedures
directly related to the department’s communications system and mandates continuing
education of your officers. Addressing these challenges in the planning stages of the
acquisition process will result in a more effective communications platform for the
department.
Chief Arthur K. Bourne
Gulf Shores Police Department—Alabama
Interoperability Overview
The Interoperability Continuum is designed to help the public safety community and
local, tribal, state, and federal policy makers address critical elements for success as they
plan and implement interoperability solutions. These elements include governance,
standard operating procedures, technology, training, exercises, and usage of interoperable
communications.
The Interoperability Continuum was developed in accordance with the Department
of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate’s Office for
Interoperability and Compatibility’s SAFECOM program. This tool was established
to depict the core facets of interoperability according to the identified needs and
challenges of the public safety community and will aid public safety practitioners
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and policy makers in their short and long term interoperability efforts. Communications
interoperability refers to the ability of public safety agencies to talk across disciplines and
jurisdictions via radio communications systems, exchanging voice and/or data with one
another on demand, in real-time, when needed, and as authorized.
To drive progress along the five elements of the continuum and improve
interoperability, public safety practitioners should observe the following principles:
• Gain leadership commitment from all disciplines (law enforcement, fire, and
EMS)
• Foster collaboration across disciplines (law enforcement, fire, and EMS)
through leadership support
• Interface with policy makers to gain leadership commitment and resource
support
• Use interoperability solutions on a regular basis
• Plan and budget for ongoing updates to systems, procedures, and
documentation
• Ensure collaboration and coordination across all elements [Governance,
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), Technology, Training/Exercises,
Usage]
Making progress in all aspects of interoperability is essential, since the elements are
interdependent. Therefore, to gain a true picture of a region’s interoperability, progress along
all five elements of the continuum must be considered together. For example, when a region
procures new equipment, that region should plan training and conduct exercises to make the
best use of that equipment.
Leadership, Planning, and Collaboration
Many regions face difficulties related to political issues and the relationships within and
across jurisdictions and disciplines (e.g., law enforcement, fire, and EMS). Chiefs can help to
work through these challenging internal and jurisdictional conflicts as well as set the stage for
a region’s commitment to the interoperability effort. Additionally, leaders must be willing to
commit the time and resources necessary to ensure the success of any interoperability effort.
Sustainability
Communications interoperability is an ongoing process, not a one time investment. An
interoperability program should include both short and long-term solutions. It is critical, that
short-term solutions not inappropriately drive the planning process, but function in support
of longer-term improvements.
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Interoperability Continuum Elements
A common governing structure for solving regional interoperability issues may improve
the policies, processes, and procedures of any major project by enhancing communication,
coordination, and cooperation, establishing guidelines and principles, and reducing any
internal jurisdictional conflicts. A formal governance structure is critical to the success of
interoperability planning. Interoperability Continuum Elements include:
• Individual agencies working independently—A lack of coordination among
responding organizations
• Informal coordination between agencies—Loose line level or agency agreements that
provide minimal incident interoperability
• Key multidiscipline staff collaboration on a regular basis—A number of agencies and
disciplines working together in a local area to promote interoperability
• Regional committee working with a statewide interoperability committee—
Multidisciplinary agencies working together across a region pursuant to formal written
agreements as defined within the larger scope of a state plan. Such an arrangement
promotes optimal interoperability.
Local and Federal Interoperability
Although technology is a critical tool for improving interoperability, it is not the sole driver
of an optimal solution. Success in each of the other elements is essential to its proper use and
implementation, and should drive technology procurement.
Technology is highly dependent upon existing infrastructure within a department and
region. Multiple technology solutions may be required to support large events.
Adapted from Interoperability Continuum brochure, 2004 with permission from the Department of
Homeland Security’s Office for Interoperability and Compatibility’s SAFECOM Program. Further
reproduction without express written permission is strictly prohibited.
http://www.safecomprogram.gov
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Estimating Costs
Planning and purchasing technology involves careful consideration of long term and
short term budgeting costs. Technology costs are not limited to the initial expense of
equipment purchase but include recurring expenses, ongoing training and infrastructure
support. It is essential that law enforcement agencies carefully account for all related
costs when preparing for a technology purchase.
This section lists some of the expenses that should be accounted for when planning
a technology acquisition. This list should not be considered exclusive, and to create a
comprehensive cost estimate, departments should develop a full request for proposals.
Additionally, consultants who specialize in communications systems may assist
departments in determining projected costs.
Communications Cost Considerations
The cost estimates for the design, implementation, construction and maintenance of a
communications systems encapsulate many factors. While initial concerns surround the
purchase of equipment components and radios necessary to construct the system, there
are other expenses required for long-term support of a communications network.
Initial capital costs used to cover the purchase and installation of equipment necessary
to build the system. These costs are highly dependent upon the status of the existing
system, the facilities that house it, and the network that connects the pieces together.
The following list of items needs to be reviewed and considered:
• What type of system, options, coverage, capabilities and capacity will be needed?
Are the needs real and viable? Will the costs cover the actual requirements
without vendor fascination of often-unused costly options?
• Will the project process include a system integrator for the construction of the
network?
• Will the project include the use of a consultant for coverage predictions, needs
analysis, RFP and specifications and bid processes?
• Is the department procurement informed and included in the process?
• What are the construction costs of the system including electrical, facilities,
towers, grounding, road construction to sites, site preparation, antenna mounts,
UPS, battery backup, generator and fuel supply, microwave or network controls?
• What alarm systems will monitor the network and allow remote maintenance
and dissection of system problems?
• Will the system be maintained by in-house or contracted services?
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• What are the terms?
• Will there be enough budget to support the cost of the technical staff and technical
support equipment? Are private resources adequate and available? What are their
costs?
• If the system purchase includes public financing, have provisions been made for an
attorney contract specialist, bond attorney, accountant and financial advisor?
• If the project includes the development of communications sites, have the property
rental space, tower contracts, utility contracts been negotiated?
• If the system is for multiple agencies, are all participants aware of their responsibilities
and contractually involved in the governance, procurement and acquisition process?
• Have the costs been defined for participants in the project if it will serve multiple
disciplines?
• Have the facilities and connectivity arrangements been made with the dispatch center
including connectivity, console layout and connectivity, recording and logging, backup
generator and batteries?
• Does project procurement include spare parts and replaceable equipment for all
critical components of the system in the initial purchase? Can the vendor recommend
lists of critical parts?
• Will the control circuits include microwave, leased lines or fiber optics? And are their
costs included in part of the project?
• Is a contingency fund for unexpected expenses established?
Communications system projects also require ongoing funding for maintenance, support
and upgrade. Most of today’s systems are software based and require upgrades as new
improvements are made. Continual support and monitoring of the network ensures reliable
service and access for the life of the system.
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Purchasing Guidelines
Source: Association of Public-Safety Communication Officials, International and Department
of Homeland Security’s SAFECOM Program.
Because of the rapidly changing nature of technology, it can be difficult to stay current
on technology upgrades. Performance specifications and technology standards are the
underlying “laws” that govern the development of local, national, and international
services, networks and procedures. Telecommunications networks worldwide use formal
telecommunications standards to physically interconnect their systems and ensure that
they perform as expected. Without agreements and the standards that codify them,
wide-area voice, data, and video communications would not be possible.
What is the Difference Between Standards and a Statement
of Requirements?
Recognizing the need for common standards, APCO, National Association of State
Telecommunication Directors (NASTD) and the U.S. Government established
Project 25, a steering committee for selecting voluntary common system standards for
digital public safety communications (the P25 Standard). The P25 standards provide
for communications between and within various P25 systems and system elements.
Manufacturers use these documents to develop equipment that meets the objectives of
interoperability. The P25 standards enables compliant radios to communicate in analog
mode with legacy analog radios and in either digital or analog mode with other P25
radios. In addition, P25 systems can be maintained and upgraded cost effectively over
the system’s life cycle. Additional information on the specifics of the Project 25 standard
is available at http://www.safecomprogram.gov. and http://www.apcointl.org
What is P25?
Project 25 defines a suite of standards for a digital wireless radio communications
system to be used by the public safety community. To allow multiple vendors to supply
the products and services to the communications system users, the Project 25 system
has eight interfaces for which standards are or will be developed. Each interface allows
the products of one manufacturer to interoperate with products of other manufacturers
by defining the signaling and messages that cross the interface. For example, an agency
could purchase P25 portable radios from one or more vendors, mobile radios from
other vendors, the base stations from others, and dispatch consoles from still other
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vendors; all would have the features the agency needs to accomplish its mission, and all
would interoperate under the P25 standards.
Because the emphasis of this document is on functional requirements, there has been a
conscious effort to avoid specifying not only technologies but business models as well (e.g.,
whether requirements should be addressed through owned products and systems or via
commercial services). Similarly infrastructure is not specified, except to note that consistent
with first responder operations, it is assumed that terminal links to and from users are
wireless unless stated otherwise.
The SAFECOM Program developed the nation’s first ever Statement of Requirements (SoR)
for Wireless Public Safety Communications and Interoperability in coordination with the
National Public Safety Telecommunications Council, the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, and the Department of Justice’s Advanced Generation of Interoperability for Law
Enforcement (AGILE) program. This statement defines future communications requirements
for crucial voice and data communications in day-to-day, task force, and mutual aid operations
and serves as a first step toward establishing base-level communications and interoperability
standards for all public safety agencies. The SoR also helps the public safety community
convey a shared and vetted vision that ultimately will help industry better align research and
development efforts with critical interoperable communication needs.
Adapted with permission from the Department of Homeland Security’s Office for Interoperability and
Compatibility’s SAFECOM Program, 2004 and APCO International’s Web site. Further reproduction without express written permission is strictly prohibited.
http://www.safecomprogram.gov
http://apcointl.org
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Backup Systems
Source: Police Chief
One of the problems facing chiefs of smaller agencies today is their communication
system. The continuous parade of salesmen knocking on their doors every year with the
latest and greatest of new technology could lead to confusion and bad decision-making.
We all face budgetary constraints and one of the things that have been forgotten after
the purchase of the newest and greatest communication system is the backup system.
We have all seen what happened on 9/11 when the buildings in New York collapsed
many of the communication systems of police, fire and EMS went down. When
Hurricane Katrina struck, we witnessed many communication failures because of
flooding which housed powered and stored repeaters and cell phones.
So what is the answer? The answer can come from many directions. Always start with
the important question of what if the system fails? Location of critical infrastructure
must be considered during the planning and implementation phases of a project. If you
think these things through first, then hopefully you will have mitigated many of the
failures that occur due to unexpected disasters.
Many times we chiefs overlook the basics of backup systems. The old low band system
that has been stored away in a city garage collecting dust, could be reevaluated and
brought up to speed and used as a backup system since it relies primarily on the power
of the unit and not a repeater site. Law enforcement should reach out to ham operators
and even look at the option of citizen band radio units in a backup system plan. Even
though today we consider this equipment as outdated, many of us remember it worked
once and can still work today when many of our other technologies fail.
So what is the answer? Plan ahead, plan ahead and plan ahead even more.
Chief Michael Johnson
Boise Airport Police—Idaho
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Communications: When All Wired/Wireless Telephone Circuits
are Busy: Priority Telecommunication Service for First
Responders
The accessibility of traditional landline telephone circuits and cellular type mobile services
is critical to public safety personnel, particularly in times when circuits are overloaded
and busy during major events such as the recent Gulf Coast hurricanes. It is important
for police chiefs and law enforcement administrators to be aware of and utilize the
Government Emergency Telephone Service (GETS), the Wireless Priority Service (WPS),
and the Telecommunications Service Priority (TSP). The information included in this
article was provided by Lieutenant Colonel (USAF) Joanne B. Sechrest, Manager, Priority
Telecommunications Branch, and the staff of the National Communications System (NCS),
Preparedness Directorate, U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
Maintaining communication is critical for first responders to effectively and efficiently
manage and respond to daily events, natural disasters, or terrorist events. However, major
events such as the terrorist attacks on 9/11, or most recently, the devastating hurricanes along
the Gulf Coast, can trigger congestion on landlines and wireless radio (cellular) channels.
These incidents often force emergency responders, police, fire and rescue workers, and other
National Security and Emergency Preparedness (NS/EP) personnel to compete with the
general public for the same congested landline and cellular resources.
The National Communications System (NCS), part of the Department of Homeland
Security’s Preparedness Directorate, offers priority communications services to emergency
personnel at the local, state, and federal government levels, and to industry personnel in
support roles, to ensure ongoing communications under all circumstances. NCS priority
offerings include: Government Emergency Telecommunications Service, Wireless
Priority Service, and Telecommunications Service Priority programs. These priority
telecommunications services allow first responders, emergency workers, and other key NS/EP
staffs to have their critical communications receive “priority” status over calls from the general
public.
The Government Emergency Telecommunications Service (GETS) is a nationwide
landline priority telecommunications service currently serving over 110,000 users. The 2005
hurricanes along the Gulf Coast have shown that a natural disaster can severely cripple
the telephone service of an entire region. GETS is designed to make maximum use of all
available telephone resources if outages occur. GETS facilitates NS/EP communications by
providing emergency personnel access and priority processing in the local and long distance
segments of the public telephone network.
For example, following Hurricane Katrina, the communications infrastructure throughout
the affected states was devastated with cellular towers damaged or without connections
because local telephone systems were no longer functional. Michael Paterson, Emergency
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Disaster Services Director of the North and South Carolina Division of The Salvation
Army, was deployed to the Salvation Army’s Divisional Headquarters in Jackson, Miss.
There he supervised all Salvation Army operations in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi.
In addition to communicating with his own response personnel, Paterson’s responsibilities
included communicating with representatives from other organizations. Paterson stated, “In
many instances, using either of my two cell phones, each with a different provider, would
be impossible due to a ‘circuits busy’ message. Even when I was using a landline phone,
some of the same issues prohibited making calls. These were the times that I would pull out
my GETS card from my wallet and dial the access number, code, and destination number.
My calls always went right through. My GETS card is part of my personal preparedness
equipment and is with me at all times!”
A recent report from NCS regarding GETS usage during Hurricane Katrina documented
over 32,000 calls completed during the first 12 days of the disaster period with a 95 percent
call completion rate.
NS/EP personnel can apply for GETS through the GETS website at http://gets.ncs.gov.
Once approved by the NCS, GETS subscribers receive a calling card that provides access
authorization through a unique dialing plan and personal identification number. There is no
initial sign-up fee or monthly recurring charge associated with the GETS program. The cost
of a GETS call is typically $.10 per minute or less.
Wireless Priority Service (WPS) is NCS’s cellular companion to the GETS program.
WPS provides cellular telephone users priority treatment when they experience high levels
of congestion. In emergency situations that involve damaged landline networks, cellular
telephones often provide the primary means of communication and with 65 percent of
all U.S. citizens using cell phones (according to the CTIA-International Association for
the Wireless Industry, October 2005), congestion is increased even further. WPS allows
authorized NS/EP personnel to gain access to the next available cellular radio channel in
order to initiate calls during an emergency. WPS users invoke WPS by dialing *272 before
their destination number.
Colonel Liz Lippman, Senior Reservist assigned to New Orleans for Katrina
communications recovery, had this to say about WPS. “I was assigned to New Orleans five
weeks after the storm hit and there was still significant congestion in the area. WPS was a
lifesaver and worked 100% of the time when other cell coverage failed.”
WPS, when used in conjunction with GETS, ensures priority treatment in both the landline
and cellular portions of the public telephone network. This ensures cellular callers the highest
possibility of end-to-end call completion. The use of WPS and GETS assures to the greatest
extent possible that emergency workers get connected and stay connected to one another.
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Current carriers for WPS include Cingular, Sprint Nextel (iDEN), SouthernLINC, and
T-Mobile. The cost for WPS will not exceed a $10 one-time activation fee, a $4.50 monthly
service fee, and 75¢ per minute charge for WPS calls. WPS charges are in addition to the
carrier’s basic cellular service plan charges. Additional service information and application
procedures are available on the WPS website http://www.wps.ncs.gov.
NCS also manages and operates a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) program
called Telecommunications Service Priority (TSP). TSP is used for the emergency
provisioning and/or restoration of NS/EP telecommunications services. According to the
FCC TSP Report and Order (FCC 88-341), NS/EP services mean “telecommunication
services which are used to maintain a state of readiness or to respond to and manage any
event or crisis (local, national, or international), which causes or could cause injury or harm to
the population, damage to or loss of property, or degrades or threatens the NSEP posture of
the United States.”
The nation’s telecommunications infrastructure is not impervious to a natural disaster or
terrorist attack, when mission-critical circuits can be disrupted and thousands of access lines
damaged. As a result, telecommunications service vendors may become overwhelmed with
requests for new services or restoration of existing services. Again, a good case in point is
the recent hurricane disaster along the Gulf Coast where Katrina downed telephone lines
and cell towers, leaving the general public, as well as emergency workers with little means of
communication. Who makes the decision as to where services are restored first? TSP provides
service vendors with an FCC mandate for prioritizing the services which are critical to
NS/EP. A TSP assignment ensures that a circuit will receive priority attention by the service
vendor before any non-TSP circuit. There were 3,270 TSP provisioning requests processed for
Hurricane Katrina and 121 requests processed for Hurricane Rita.
The TSP program has been very successful, with more than 85,000 NS/EP services,
representing multiple critical infrastructures currently protected with TSP assignments.
State and local organizations currently constitute the largest growth area for TSP restoration
assignments. This indicates the important role that TSP can play in federal, state, and local
governments’ and industrys’ critical infrastructure protection efforts.
The cost for TSP consists of an average one-time fee of $100 to start the service and
approximately $3.00 per month to maintain it. The TSP Service User Manual and Vendor
Handbook provide complete information on the TSP Program and are available online at
http://www.tsp.ncs.gov.
NCS Priority Telecommunications Services have been instrumental in maintaining critical
communications in many disasters. These programs played a crucial role in the restoration of
telecommunications services post Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. The programs support the
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efforts of first responders, local government officials, FEMA, the Coast Guard, the National
Guard, and many other agencies that continue to deal with the aftermath of these disasters.
Kenneth Buckley, representing the financial sector of the Board of Governors of the Federal
Reserve System, had this comment about NCS Priority Telecommunications Services, “TSP,
GETS, and WPS proved to be invaluable in facilitating communications throughout the
regions of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama that had incurred major damage to their
telecommunications infrastructure. It is hard to conceive how the situation would have been
managed without the availability of these priority programs.”
First responders, emergency managers, and other NS/EP personnel alike need to avail
themselves of as many of these important programs as possible to ensure the continuity of
essential communications when most needed. To better understand these programs and how
they all link together in the National Response Plan’s Emergency Support Function #2–
Communications, NCS urges first responders to attend a Telecommunications Emergency
Response Training (ERT) Seminar in one of the ten federal response regions.
Now 12 years old, the ERT program encourages dialogue and networking among emergency
operations leaders, their planners and communications specialists, and telecommunications
providers, both landline and cellular. Each seminar provides an overview of current and future
telecommunications services available to responders during emergencies. The briefings place
these services in the context of the evolving National Response Plan and the latest lessons
learned from actual incidents.
In addition to briefings, NCS devotes half of each seminar to practical application. Using
an all-hazards scenario similar to a tabletop exercise, a facilitated group discussion generates
dialogue between responders – governmental, nongovernmental, and industry – at the local,
regional, and national levels. NCS tailors these discussions to each region.
NS/EP personnel may register for an upcoming Telecommunications Emergency Response
Training seminar, at no cost, through the NCS website at www.ncs.gov/tpos. In addition
to the priority telecommunications services and the ERT Seminars, NCS provides other
programs and services to support NS/EP efforts across federal, state, and local government
and critical infrastructure industry. To learn more about all of the programs and services
offered by NCS, visit the NCS web site at http://www.ncs.gov or call 866.NCS.CALL
(866.627.2255).
Reproduced from Police Chief Magazine, March 2006 with permission from the IACP.
http://www.iacp.org
Article written by: Chief Harlin R. McEwen, (Ret.), Communication Committee Chair—International Association of Chiefs of Police, Communications Advisor—NCC, NSA, MCSA, Ithaca Police
Department—New York
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Training
Source: Association of Public-Safety Officials, International
Since the early days of law enforcement, police officers have struggled with the
challenges of proper communications and the use of the police radio. Proper training
in your department’s communications system is vital to the success and safety of the
department, its officers and the community. Many departments have attempted to
implement various codes and signals in an attempt to streamline the communications
process. Police departments that provide their officers and employees with frequent
training covering a broad range of commonly used codes and the proper procedures for
radio usage, demonstrate more efficiency and effectiveness.
As new communications technology becomes available to the department, personnel
training on proper departmental communication procedures, will continue to be
important. Those departments providing regular training for officers and dispatch
personnel will discover more effective communication between the units on the streets
and the communications center, resulting in an efficient and safer department.
Minimum Training Standards for Public Safety
Communications Telecommunicators—Project 33 Revised
Administration
1.1 Scope
This standard identifies the minimum training requirements for public safety
telecommunications officers, telecommunicators, call takers and/or dispatchers.
1.2 Purpose
The standard specifies the minimum training requirements in general of all personnel
assigned to any public safety communication function; it recognizes the need to
supplement these basic competencies with agency-specific information and existing
equipment-use parameters, as revised.
1.3 General
1.3.1
The hiring authority/agency shall establish no less than these minimum training
standards and supplement each as necessary for localized operational necessity.
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1.3.2
The hiring authority/agency shall define the cognitive and psychomotor skill required
to successfully achieve compliance with these training standards. This shall include
the basic skills of reading, spelling, speech, mathematics, basic language, written
communication and active listening.
1.3.3
The hiring authority/agency shall monitor the performance of the public safety
communication officer to assure that the daily effort is consistent with the acceptable
standards of call handling and dispatch responsibility. Special attention shall be paid to
timely and accurate information gathering and dissemination.
1.3.4
The hiring authority/agency shall maintain complete training records and assure that all
public safety communication operatives, in all agency classifications, remain current in all
areas of required performance through competent training.
Definitions
2.1 General
The definition of most terms used throughout this standard are defined as they appear in the
text. Additional definitions are provided here.
2.1.1 Agency/Hiring Authority
The agency or body which defines the roles, responsibilities, policies and procedures,
as well as the performance standards that direct the activity of the public safety
telecommunicator. In multi-discipline centers, the hiring authority governs the operation
providing call taking/dispatch and related services to customer agencies; in single
discipline centers, a single agency may direct these services for one or more departments
within a service area. Both have the duty to define training appropriateness, content, format,
and in-service requirements.
2.1.2 APCO ADA Training Standard
The special relationship between callers with disability in crisis and the public safety
communications center has been defined within the ADA Training Standard. Specific
attention to these requirements/recommendations should be included in the future
revisions.
2.1.3 Basic Competency
The standard frequently refers to the need for the demonstration of basic competencies
within various sections of the training program. Basic competency per section shall
mean the unique, requisite knowledge, comprehension and application of skills and
situational analysis leading to the appropriate synthesis of an effective response to the
caller, event and field unit consistent with these general practices, as well as locally
defined response parameters.
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2.1.4 Calls for Service
The call that results in the dispatch of some class of field unit.
2.1.5 National Incident Command/Management System
An organized method to define roles, responsibilities and standard operating
procedures used to unify multiple disciplines in order to manage emergency operations,
under one functional organization.
2.1.6 Knowledge
Fundamental understanding one must have in order to perform a specific task.
Comprehension is required to effectively apply the knowledge in the analysis of each
activity resulting in the synthesis of an appropriate response.
2.1.7 Skills
The essential abilities that are necessary to perform a specific task.
2.1.8 Public Safety Telecommunicator
The first-line public safety professional that serves as the first of the first responders,
responding to every class of emergency for which public safety services are requested.
The individual employed by a public safety agency whose primary responsibility is to
receive and process emergency and non-emergency calls for police, fire, emergency
medical and other public safety services via telephone and other communication
devices.
2.1.9 PSAP
Public Safety Answering Point-A facility equipped and staffed to receive emergency
calls requesting law enforcement, fire, EMS and other public safety services via
telephone and other communication devices. A primary PSAP is a facility at which
emergency calls are first answered and triaged. The primary PSAP may also be the
point from which calls are dispatched. The secondary Public Safety Answering Point
is the point to which a primary PSAP transfers calls for service for dispatch or further
processing.
2.1.10 Shall
Within the context of this standard, shall indicate a mandatory requirement.
Candidate Requirements—Agency Orientation
3.1 General
The candidate shall understand the agency personnel policy/practices:
3.1.1
The candidate shall demonstrate an understanding of agency resources,
including location of public safety/service buildings, apparatus and
equipment, emergency-management services and facilities and emergency-planning
documents.
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3.1.2
The candidate shall be aware of and understand the opportunity to participate in such
programs as:
• Employee Assistance Program (EAP)
• Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM)/Critical Incident Debriefing
(CISD)
• Health and Wellness Programs
• Stress-Management Techniques
3.1.3
The candidate shall understand fully the safety requirement of the position as required
by the hiring authority/agency, appropriate state regulations and, if applicable, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
Roles and Responsibilities
4.1 General
The candidate shall understand the agency’s mission and can demonstrate the same by
articulating their role within the organization toward accomplishment of the mission.
4.1.1
The candidate can articulate formal and informal values that support public safety
professionalism.
4.1.2
The candidate can identify formal and informal values that relate to his/her role as a
public safety communications professional.
4.1.3
The candidate understands and can articulate the importance of ethical behavior for
which he/she has a direct responsibility. This includes agency guidelines for handling
sensitive information for which confidentiality is required and/or expected. Specific
knowledge of national and state law enforcement databases is required.
4.1.4
The candidate shall be able to articulate the hiring authority/agency’s expectations of
professional conduct.
4.1.5
The candidate shall be able to articulate and demonstrate the professional standards
essential to competent performance as related to effective and efficient call processing/
dispatch/monitoring of all event types.
4.1.6
The candidate shall demonstrate basic competency in the knowledge, skills, abilities and
attitudes required of an effective public safety telecommunicator.
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4.1.7
The candidate shall be able to articulate the difference between policies and procedures;
correlate the policies and procedures to the required performance, as well as identify
state, local rules relating to the performance requirements of their duties.
4.1.8
The candidate understands and complies with the hiring authority/agency’s approach to
risk management.
4.1.9
The candidate demonstrates the ability to identify the boundaries, addressing and
topography issues and features within the hiring authority/agency’s service area.
4.1.10
The candidate shall be able to identify public safety customers, demographics, as well as
local authorities and resources.
4.1.11
The candidate shall be able to identify the hiring authority/agency’s customers as
callers, community members, public/private entities, responders, user-agency personnel
and others so designated.
4.1.12
The candidate shall be able to identify pertinent demographic information necessary to
generate an appropriate response.
4.1.13
The candidate shall be able to recognize non-traditional public safety service providers,
including but not limited to agency partnerships, tribal authorities, military liaisons,
port authorities, private/proprietary security forces and others.
4.1.14
The candidate shall understand and be able to articulate his/her role as a member of
the hiring authority/agency’s public safety team. This includes a clear acceptance and
understanding of the “first, first responder” concept and such performance as related to
the delivery of public safety services to all customers.
4.1.15
The candidate shall demonstrate an understanding of his/her role within the agency
regarding release of information to the media, public and others. Candidates shall
understand the terms “confidential”, “sensitive” and “protected information.”
4.1.16
The candidate shall be able to identify and use available resources, partnerships and
tools to enhance the delivery of public safety services.
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Liability
5.1 General
The candidate shall understand general and hiring authority/agency-specific liability concepts
and terms. The public safety communications professional in addition to understanding the
general principles of liability and the consequences of lawsuits, shall know, comprehend and
demonstrate by application the specific liability factors related to law enforcement, fire, rescue
and emergency medical call types.
5.2 Special Relationships
5.2.1
Candidates shall be able to demonstrate comprehension of the specific liability issues
related to call taking and dispatch of law enforcement responders.
5.2.2
Candidates shall be able to identify and evaluate the specific liability issues related to
call taking and dispatch of fire and rescue responders.
5.2.3
Candidates shall be able to list and define the specific liability issues related to call
taking and dispatch of emergency medical service responders.
5.2.4
Candidates shall be able to identify and define the specific liability issues related to
mutual aid, automatic aid and operational recovery planning responses.
5.2.5
Candidates shall be able to articulate the specific liability issues related to the
interaction with other agencies (local, county, state and federal), particularly in the area
of emergency management, disaster events, threat notification, and homeland-security
information.
5.3 Responder Safety
5.3.1
Candidates shall be able to articulate and demonstrate understanding of their roles in
and responsibility for responder safety. Examples: the effective collection, assessment
and dissemination of event information for selected call types; appropriate response to
emergency call from field unit; adequate deployment of resources to emergency calls in
progress.
Interpersonal Communications
6.1 General
The candidate must have significant competency in all aspects of interpersonal
communication, including teamwork concepts. Communication skills are critical to the
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proper receipt and assessment of information, as well as to the effective delivery of the
information to responders. Appropriate use of the chain of command for notification and
escalation of incidents is essential. Effective interpersonal communications is also required
for all interactions with all and especially diverse caller types.
6.1.1
The candidate shall demonstrate competency in the basic skills, knowledge, abilities and
attitudes necessary for effective communication as a public safety telecommunicator.
6.1.2
The candidate shall be able to identify both internal and external hiring authority/
agency customers.
6.1.3
The candidate shall demonstrate the appropriate customer-service communication skills
and techniques to effectively serve all customer types.
6.1.4
The candidate shall understand and demonstrate the techniques for effective
communication with deaf/hearing-impaired, as well as speech impaired customers.
6.1.5
The candidate shall understand and demonstrate the application of procedures for
communicating with non-English or limited-English speaking customers.
Public Safety Communication Center Technologies
7.1 General
The candidate shall be able to understand and demonstrate effective use of existing
technology within the public safety communication center. Further, the candidate shall
be able to articulate the policy/procedure, as well as demonstrate effective call-handling
processes for calls using emerging technology to access the public safety communication
center.
7.2 Telephony via Traditional Technology
The candidate shall be able to understand the purpose of and demonstrate the proper
operation of all classes of telephony technology within the public safety communication
center, including the following as applicable.
7.2.1
9-1-1 and Enhanced 9-1-1 with traditional wireline and wireless access.
7.2.2
ANI–Automatic Number Identification.
7.2.3
ALI–Automatic Location Identification.
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7.2.4
Selective Routing–the capacity of the 9-1-1 switch to route calls to the appropriate
PSAP based on ESN–Emergency Service Number.
7.2.5
PBX–Private Branch Exchange/ Multiple Line Telephone Switch which can serve a
large building or complex from a central location (e.g., hotel, factory, office building)
and uses the location of the “switch” as the location reporting the emergency, despite the
actual location of the event being served by the “switch.”
7.2.6
Agency phone system–An agency phone system may serve those within the same
building (intra) or between buildings (inter).
7.2.7
TTD/TTY—Telecommunications Device for the Deaf–Teletypewriter device used by
hearing and speech-impaired persons to communicate via the public switch telephone
system.
7.2.8
Call box–device capable of delivering voice to the PSAP via a direct connect or direct
routing via multiple means. Usually reserved for emergency use from fixed locations
(e.g., public swimming pools, airports, designated high-traffic areas, etc.).
7.3 Telephony via Emerging Technology
The candidate can articulate a basic understanding of current and emerging telephony
technologies and their impacts upon public safety communications. Examples include
common wireless 9-1-1 service, VoIP (Voice over the Internet Protocol), Telematic Service
Providers (TSP).
7.3.1
Wireless 9-1-1 service–the candidate shall demonstrate understanding of and effective
response to Phase 0, Phase I and Phase II wireless 9-1-1 call data as presented to the
PSAP.
7.3.2
Longitude and latitude–the candidate shall demonstrate an understanding of and
effective use of longitude and latitude data associated with wireless 9-1-1 calls, as
related to event location, as well as customer dispatch.
7.3.3
Mapping applications–the candidate shall demonstrate effective use of existing map
interfaces, mapping program features, including resolution parameters, multiple layers
and zone and beat configurations, as applicable.
7.3.4
VoIP—Voice over Internet Protocol–the candidate shall be able to articulate an
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understanding of how such calls are delivered to the public safety communication
center, as well as the application of hiring authority/agency policy/procedure regarding
calls of this type.
7.3.5
PDA—Personal Digital Assistant–the candidate shall be able to articulate and
understanding of this call-type technology, as well as demonstrate the application of
hiring authority/agency policy and procedure regarding calls of this type.
7.3.6
Telematic service providers–the candidate shall be able to articulate the hiring
authority/agency policy/procedure, as well as demonstrate the call handling processes
for customers of these third party call centers, providing access to PSAPs via the
network serving the subscriber/customer.
• Emergency notification with voice
• Airbag/ACN/AACN incident without voice
• Emergency notification without voice
• Vehicle tracking (stolen vehicles, missing/endangered people)
7.3.7
Number portability–the candidate shall be able to articulate the hiring authority/agency
policy/procedure, as well as demonstrate the call handling process for these call types.
7.3.8
Enhanced alarm company notification–the candidate shall be able to articulate the
hiring authority/agency policy/procedure, as well as demonstrate the call-handling
processes for this type of call (as applicable).
7.4 Recording Devices
The candidate shall be able to articulate the hiring authority/agency policy/procedure
regarding the recording of voice and/or data within the public safety communication center.
7.4.1
The candidate shall be able to describe the operation of the hiring authority/agency’s
recording devices.
7.4.2
The candidate shall be able to articulate the legal requirements/restrictions associated
with the recording of information within the PSAP.
7.5 Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD)
The candidate shall be able to articulate an understanding of the current capabilities, as well
as demonstrate proper operation of the existing CAD system. This includes accurate data
entry, effective screen navigation, prompt information retrieval and system integration.
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7.5.1
The candidate shall be able to identify the CAD system’s individual components and its
integration with other systems.
7.5.2
The candidate shall be able to articulate the relationship between the effective use of the
CAD system and the successful delivery of public safety services.
7.5.3
The candidate shall be able to understand and demonstrate the effective application of
backup procedures for processing calls in the event of a CAD system failure.
7.6 Additional Technologies
7.6.1
When applicable, the candidate shall be able to demonstrate the effective use of
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) systems as related to the prompt delivery of public
safety services.
7.6.2
When applicable, the candidate shall be able to demonstrate the effective use of Mobile
Data Computer/Terminal (MDC/MDT) systems as related to the response to requests
for service by hiring authority/agency customers.
Radio
8.1 General
The candidate shall be able to understand and demonstrate the efficient and effective use of
hiring authority/agency’s radio system(s). The candidate shall be able to articulate and apply
the policy/procedures related to normal and emergency radio-system uses.
8.2
The candidate shall be able to identify and list the components of the hiring authority/
agency’s radio system(s), as well as be able to articulate an understanding of the use of each
component, including:
8.2.1
Frequency/talk group, assignment and controls as defined within the policy/procedure.
8.2.2
Equipment features, as authorized to use by the policy/procedures.
8.2.3
Mobile radios, as assigned and used within the field and the PSAP.
8.2.4
Portable radios, as assigned and used within the field and the PSAP.
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8.2.5
Paging systems, as authorized by the policy/procedure.
8.3
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the appropriate use of talk groups or frequency
coordination.
8.4
The candidate shall be able to articulate the application of existing interoperability
communication plans.
8.5
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the appropriate and professional use of the radio
system, with all classes of customers, in the delivery of public safety communication services.
8.6
The candidate shall be able to list the current FCC rules pertaining to the use of public safety
radio spectrum.
Call Processing Techniques
9.1 General
The candidate shall be able to articulate an understanding of and demonstrate the ability
to efficiently and effectively process calls for service from all classes of agency customers.
Example: controlling the caller, collecting event specific information, assessing the
information, selecting the proper call type and causing the appropriate response.
9.2 Call Receipt
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to process emergency and nonemergency calls for service consistent with the hiring authority policy/procedure and
professional conduct.
9.3 Interviewing
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to interview callers and with
promptness and accuracy obtain all pertinent information related to the call.
9.4 Controlling the Conversation
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to effectively control a conversation
using appropriate techniques consistent with the agency policy/procedure.
9.5 Types of Callers
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to effectively communicate with
different callers to facilitate the appropriate delivery of public safety services.
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9.6 Third Party Callers
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to gather information from a third
party call center to facilitate appropriate delivery of public safety services.
9.7 High Risk/Crisis Intervention/Difficult Callers
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to gather and disseminate information
obtained from callers in crisis. Special attention to and understanding of the dynamics and
agency protocols regarding domestic violence/exploited children and adult calls, as well as
potential homeland security/terrorism incident calls will also be required. As applicable, the
call-processing parameters of calls requiring secondary notice to others (e.g., Amber Alert,
Agency Alert calls) shall be demonstrated. Other difficult caller types include suicidal callers
and callers in any high-risk incident.
Call Classification
10.1 General
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate by application, the ability to categorize, prioritize,
as well as determine the appropriate response levels for all types of law enforcement, fire/
rescue and emergency medical calls. This shall include emergency calls in progress, mutual
and automatic aid responses, as well as events requiring upward notification of individuals/
agencies.
10.2
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to accurately and appropriately
categorize all calls for service, as authorized by policy/procedure.
10.3
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to appropriately prioritize all calls for
service as authorized by the policy/procedure.
10.4
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to determine the appropriate resources
to be used in response to the call for public safety services, as authorized by the policy/
procedure.
Dispatch Techniques
11.1 General
While plain English is preferred by many agencies, to avoid any misunderstanding as to
type of call and/or call priority; the candidate shall be able to demonstrate the efficient
and effective use of agency approved and required radio codes and signals. In addition, the
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candidate shall demonstrate an understanding of his/her role in maintaining responder safety
by the use of appropriate skills and resources. The candidate further shall demonstrate an
understanding of Incident Command/ Integrated Command Systems and Tactical Dispatch
Teams as authorized by the hiring authority/agency/agency.
11.2 Procedures and Protocols
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate appropriate dispatch techniques, including as
authorized by existing policy/procedure, the following:
11.2.1
Proper message-formatting.
11.2.2
Use of phonetic alphabet.
11.3 Appropriate Radio Speech
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the elements of appropriate radio speech, as
authorized by the existing policy/procedure, including the following:
11.3.1
Clear Speech.
11.3.2
Proper diction, modulation, rate of speed.
11.3.3
Authorized phraseology and terminology.
11.3.4
Paraphrasing without distortion or loss of information elements.
11.4 Responder Safety
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate the ability to respond appropriately to distress
calls from field units as authorized by the policy/procedure. Efforts to maintain responder
safety shall as authorized include the following:
11.4.1
Use of status checks.
11.4.2
Location verification.
11.4.3
Use of appropriate CAD file/responder safety tools.
11.5 National Incident Command or Management System (NIMS/ICS/IMS)
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate an understanding of the applicability of the
incident command/management system, as authorized by the hiring authority/agency policy/
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procedure. Further, the candidate shall be able to articulate his/her role and responsibilities
within the National Incident Command/Management System, consistent with the most
recent nationally approved models used within the service areas.
11.6 Tactical Incident Dispatch Teams
The candidate shall be able to demonstrate an understanding of incident or tactical dispatch
teams, when applicable, based upon hiring authority/agency and agency policy/procedure.
Adapted from Minimum Training Standards for Public Safety Communications Telcommunicators,
updated 2006 with permission from the Association of Public Safety Communications Officials,
International. Further reproduction without express written permission in strictly prohibited.
http://www.apcointl.org
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Sample Policy
Policies included in the TDR are examples of procedural guidance for
communications systems. As law enforcement executives tailor each policy to their
specific agencies, the policy will need to be redrafted in the context of existing
local ordinances, provisions of union contracts, and all other state and federal laws.
Departments must ensure that all other related policies are updated to be consistent
with the provisions of this new communications policy.
Every effort has been made by the IACP Research Center Directorate and the
Technology Technical Assistance Program (TTAP) to ensure that each policy
incorporates the most current information and contemporary professional judgment
on the issue. However, law enforcement administrators should adapt any model
policy to meet the needs of their law enforcement agency. Each law enforcement
agency operates in a unique environment of federal court rulings, state laws,
local ordinances, regulations, judicial and administrative decisions, and collective
bargaining agreements. Each agency needs to tailor its policies to ensure compliance
with all appropriate laws, regulations and agreements.
Operational Procedures And Duties
The call taker or dispatcher who receives a telephone call or radio transmission must
first determine the nature of the call, emergency or non-emergency.
Call takers should elicit as much information as possible regarding calls for service.
Additional information may enhance officer safety and assist officers in anticipating
conditions to be encountered at the scene. This is particularly important in calls such as
disturbances, weapons complaints, bomb threats, and crimes in progress.
A) Emergency Calls
1) Emergency Calls received on 9-1-1.
a. Calls received on 9-1-1 will be answered immediately. The call taker or
dispatcher will place non-emergency calls on hold to answer a 9-1-1 call.
b. The call taker or dispatcher shall answer all calls received on 9-1-1 by
saying “EMERGENCY”.
c. The call taker or dispatcher shall obtain, if possible, the following
information from the caller:
• Nature of the incident
• Location of the incident
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d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
• Critical information which will help in providing proper police or emergency
service (e.g. number and description of suspects, weapons used, vehicle
description, etc.)
• Name, address and/or present location of caller for a motor vehicle accident,
whether there are any injuries or commercial vehicles involved that may
contain hazardous materials
The enhanced 9-1-1 telephone system will display the location from where
the call is being made, and the name of the telephone customer.
W hen it becomes necessary to maintain contact with the caller to obtain more
detailed information and help in providing police service, or to ensure the caller’s
safety, the dispatcher will pick up on the line and assume this responsibility. If
possible, callers reporting crimes in progress should be kept on the line to provide
updated information to responding units.
The call taker or dispatcher will enter the information into the CAD
system as soon a practical.
The call taker may, depending on the nature of the call, verbally notify
the dispatcher of pertinent information prior to entry into the CAD system.
The dispatcher, when notified of an emergency call, shall:
• I mmediately dispatch the call to the nearest available unit (The dispatcher must
consider the option of reassigning a unit which may be on a non-emergency
call)
• Assign additional units as may be needed based upon the nature of the
complaint
• Notify other emergency services known or suspected to be needed such as
ambulance, fire department, etc.
• Upon receipt of a motor vehicle accident with injury complaint in the (specific
area of town mentioned) area of town, the dispatcher shall notify Hospital
Emergency and Fire Central who shall then notify (specific area of town
mentioned) Fire Emergency
• Monitor and respond to requests from arriving units for:
a. Additional units
b. Special Units (e.g. K-9 Unit, Marine Unit, Detective Bureau, etc.)
c. Other Agencies (e.g. Fire Department, Ambulance, Medical Examiner, etc.)
d. Broadcast of information on the Hotline or County Band Radio System.
• Notify a Field Supervisor, who must monitor the information
and give the necessary orders
i. If a Field Supervisor is not at the scene, the officer
assigned can request additional units or the dispatcher can
assign backup units based upon the information received.
ii. Additional units shall be assigned as needed.* Units not
needed shall clear or be cleared for reassignment.
W hen a Field Supervisor is at the scene, it will be the supervisor’s responsibility to
make the determination on the need for additional units or to relieve units not needed
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for other assignments
j. W
hen special units or other agencies are needed, the dispatcher shall notify them
of the need for their services
k. The dispatcher shall obtain all available information they may request for their
proper response
l. It is the responsibility of the dispatcher to transmit information over the (specific
county mentioned) County Radio System or Hotline as requested and/or required
m. It is the responsibility of the dispatcher to enter all pertinent information
concerning the call into the CAD system. (i.e., all responding units, times of
notification and arrival, case disposition, times cleared, etc.)
2) Emergency calls received on lines other than 9-1-1
The same procedures as used for emergency calls received on 9-1-1 shall be used.
However, since only calls received on 9-1-1 have the automatic phone number and
location display feature, it is extremely important that the call taker receive the location,
name and number of the caller as soon as possible.
3) Fire calls
All calls received on 9-1-1 reporting a fire or other condition appropriate for an initial
response by the Fire Department will be handled as follows:
a. Obtain the location of the fire from the caller.
b. Notify the caller that the call is being transferred to the Fire Department,
transfer the call, and monitor conversation.
c. Follow the procedure for entry into the CAD system and notification of the
dispatcher as outlined for other emergency calls.
d. If the caller hangs up prior to transfer of the call to the Fire Department,
immediately notify the Fire Department of the call, and attempt call back.
e. As soon as practical, the dispatcher shall fax the call information to the fire
department. This is done to verify the proper address of the call.
4) Ambulance calls
All calls received on 9-1-1 requesting medical assistance will be handled as follows:
a. Obtain the location of the incident, name of the caller, and nature
of the incident
b. Follow the procedures for entry into the CAD system and notification
of dispatcher as outlined for other emergency calls
c. “Tone out” the ambulance and dispatch the call as well as any police units
assigned to assist
d. Callers needing or requesting medical instructions pending the arrival of
emergency personnel will be forwarded to the emergency department after the
call taker obtains the necessary information
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5) Non-emergency calls
a. Non-emergency calls shall be answered as soon as possible. Non-emergency calls
will be placed on hold to answer the 9-1-1 line. The call taker or dispatcher shall
answer all calls received on non emergency lines by saying
“Police, is this an emergency?”
b. If a non-emergency call is received on 9-1-1, (additional phone numbers
mentioned), the caller will be instructed to call back on a non-emergency line.
c. The call taker or dispatcher shall obtain, if possible, the following
information from the caller:
• Nature of the incident
• Location of the incident
• Information which will help in providing the proper police service
• Name, address, and present location of the caller
d. The call taker or dispatcher shall enter the information into the CAD system as
soon as practical.
e. The dispatcher, upon notification of a non-emergency call shall:
• As soon as practical, dispatch the call to an appropriate unit
•A
ssign additional units as may be needed based upon the nature of the
complaint
f. Should a non-emergency call be held for more than 30 minutes, the dispatcher shall
notify a field supervisor
g. I t is the responsibility of the dispatcher to enter all pertinent information
concerning a call into the CAD system
6) Non-response requests for service or information
a. W hen a request for service is received which does not necessitate personal contact
by an officer, but does require a report to be filed, the caller will be transferred or
otherwise directed to the Complaint Bureau. When the Complaint Bureau is not
on duty, the caller will be transferred or otherwise directed to the Desk Sergeant.
Directive 4.1.9 describes the types of calls handled by the Complaint Bureau or
Desk Sergeant.
b. A
ny request for general police information, the caller will be transferred or
otherwise directed to the Desk Sergeant. Examples of such requests include, but are
not limited to:
• Prisoner status and information
• City events
• Directions
• Information relating to State Statutes or City Ordinances
• Personal messages for members of the Department
c. Any request for direct contact with a specialized division, unit, or person
on duty having a direct line, the caller will be instructed to call that division,
unit or person, and be given the direct line number
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d. Officer’s home telephone numbers will not be given out to anyone other
than police personnel unless there is an emergency, and a supervisor has
authorized the release
B) Operational Manual and Procedures
Operational guidelines for functions not addressed in this directive are covered
in the following manuals:
1) NCIC Operators Manuals
2) APCO Telecommunicator’s Manual as adopted by the Bureau of Statewide
Emergency Telecommunications
These manuals will remain in Communications and be available for reference.
C) Misdirected Emergency Calls
The E-9-1-1 telephone system is designed to route calls to the appropriate local
emergency communications center. On occasion however, the Department of Police
Service may receive a misdirected emergency call intended for another jurisdiction.
1) Communication personnel will accept any misdirected emergency call and obtain the
information as in any emergency call. If the call is intended for another jurisdiction
in the State, the call information will be relayed to the emergency communications
center for the appropriate jurisdiction. If the call is for a jurisdiction in another state,
an operator will be contacted to determine the appropriate jurisdiction for relaying the
information. In addition, the caller should be instructed to recontact the appropriate
emergency agency or department.
D) Information Recorded for Calls for Service
Communications personnel shall record the following information for all calls
for service or officer-initiated actions:
1) Date and time of request
2) Name and address of complainant (if possible)
3) Type of incident
4) Location of incident
5) Unit/officer assigned
6) Assisting unit(s)/officer(s)
7) Time of dispatch
8) Time of officer arrival
9) Time of officer return to service
10) Disposition of reported incident
11) Information automatically recorded by CAD
E) Radio Operations
1) General radio procedures:
a. Radio codes used by the Department of Police Service should be attached as
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an appendix B. Radio codes are used for brevity. A code or codes should not
be used when they will not clearly describe the situation or may cause
confusion or doubt as to the content and meaning of the message.
b. The Communications Division shall be designated as ‘HEADQUARTERS’
and field units shall be designated by their assigned numbers. Radio unit
identification numbers should be included as an appendix.
c. With the exception of the encrypted radio frequency, the frequencies used
by the Department of Police Service are capable of being monitored by
anyone possessing a receiver. Therefore, radio transmissions should be kept
to a minimum for routine matters with other modes of communications
used whenever practical.
d. Transmissions referring to the number of field units currently in service
should be avoided whenever possible.
F) Assignments
1) When dispatching units to a call for service, the dispatcher shall state the unit that
is assigned and the unit(s) assisting, if any
2) Only those units dispatched by the Communications Division or ordered to a location
by a field supervisor, shall respond to the scene
3) It is mandatory that all assigned and assisting units notify the Communications
Division of their arrival at the scene and await acknowledgment prior to going out
of service
4) All units shall notify the Communications Division upon their return to service
G) Case Dispositions
Upon a unit’s return to service, the dispatcher will assign a case disposition and notify the
appropriate unit. Any questions regarding assignment of a disposition will be directed to
a field supervisor. One of the following dispositions will be assigned:
1) Disposition 1
Case number issued. REPORT REQUIRED
• All arrests, summonses, infractions
• All motor vehicle accidents
• All calls for service (except as noted below)
2) Disposition 2
Case number issued NO REPORT REQUIRED
• All false alarms, false or improperly dialed 9-1-1
• Escorts
• Aid calls when the only action taken is to assist the ambulance
• No contact calls (such as speeding M/V complaint where caller is unknown)
• Canceled calls
3) Disposition 3
No case number issued - Police Activity
• M/V stops that do not generate an infraction, or summons
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• Street interviews, self-initiated parking enforcement
• Going out of town on police business
• At Police HQ on case follow up (case number already issued)
4) Disposition 4
No case number issued - administrative/personal
• Meal breaks
• Personal breaks
H) Entering and Leaving Service
1) Any field unit which goes out of service for any reason must notify the
Communications Division of their exact location and the reason for going out
of service. Field units may not go out of service until an acknowledgement is received
from the Communications Division. Communications personnel shall indicate
in the CAD system the time and reason for an officer going out of service.
2) Any time a field unit signals out of service, that officer shall ensure that his or her
portable police radio is on. Officers shall constantly monitor their portable radio in the
event they are called by communications.
3) Upon returning to service, field units shall notify the Communications Division and
assure acknowledgment from that location. Communications will then return that unit
to in-service status in the CAD system.
4) If a field unit fails to respond to a radio transmission from the Communications
Division further attempts shall be made to contact the unit. If no contact has been
made within three minutes of the original radio transmission, a field supervisor shall
be notified.
5) If a unit fails to respond to a call for service, or an emergency call, the
Communications Division shall assign another unit and attempt continued contact
with the other unit and notify a field supervisor.
I) Designated Patrol Areas
1) Units shall not leave their assigned posts without prior permission from the
Communications Division or field supervisors.
2) Field Supervisors must notify the Communications Division as soon as practical when
allowing a unit to leave their post.
3) In case of an emergency or a situation where assistance is needed, and the unit
is unable to contact the Communications Division or a field supervisor, notification
must be made as soon as possible.
4) Units shall notify the Communications Division upon returning to their post.
J) Assignment of Case Numbers
1) Communications personnel will assign a separate case number for each call for police
service. Generally, units will be notified of their case number upon completion of their
assignment.
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2) When necessary, and upon request, units may be notified of their case number prior
to the completion of their assignment.
K) Radio Frequencies
1) Station identification–The FCC designated station identification for the Police
800 MHz radio frequencies is (specific frequency mentioned).
2) Channel One–The primary channel used for communications between Police
Headquarters and the various field units. In general, all communications between the
communications Division and field units will be conducted on channel one unless
otherwise directed or approved by the Communications Division or a field supervisor.
This channel operates on the 800 MHz band.
3) Channel Two–A secondary channel used when channel one is disabled or otherwise
temporarily unavailable. This channel operates in the same manner as channel one.
4) Channel Three–A tertiary channel used when channel one is disabled or otherwise
temporarily unavailable. This channel operates in the same manner as channel one.
5) Channel Four–A talk-around channel referred to as talk-around channel one.
This channel is used for car-to-car communications. The talk-around frequencies
do not go through a repeater station, and therefore have limited range.
6) Channel Five–Talk-around channel two. Operates in the same manner as channel
four above.
7) Channel Six–Talk-around channel three. Operates in the same manner as channel
four above.
8) Channel Seven–A low-frequency channel that transmits from portable to portable
and selected mobile units. Headquarters communications cannot monitor or transmit
on this channel. This channel to be used for special purposes upon direction of a
supervisor or officer in charge.
9) County Hotline–This station is administered by the State Police. A transmitting and
receiving station is located in the Communication Center of Police Headquarters.
The County Hotline will be monitored at all times by the Communications Division.
The station identification for the County Hotline is (specific frequency mentioned).
a. The County Hotline is used to exchange information of an emergency nature. It is
not to be used for routine messages between departments. The State Police (specific
Troop mentioned) is responsible for station identifications and radio checks of the
Hotline.
10) (specific County mentioned) County Radio System–This system is divided into
two sectors:
a. The North sector consisting of: (specific towns mentioned)
b. South sector consisting of: (specific towns & State Police Troop mentioned)
c. The use of the (specific county mentioned) County Radio System is governed by
the (specific county mentioned) County Chiefs of Police Association. Regulations
regarding the use and administration of this radio system are attached to this
directive as an appendix.
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11) Public Works Radio–This system need not be monitored unless an emergency exists.
Should there be a problem with the Department of Public Works main radio, this
system may be used to receive and transmit to Public Works field personnel. This
will only be done after a request from the Public Works Department, and after
authorization by the commanding officer on duty.
12) F
ire Department Radio–This system need not be monitored unless requested by the
Fire Department, or if an emergency exists.
13) Traffic and Parking Radio–This system need not be monitored unless requested by the
Department of Public Works or if an emergency exists.
L) Telephone Communications
1) In order to keep nonessential radio transmissions to a minimum, it is recommended
that field units use telephone communications for the following situations:
a. W hen the information is of such a nature that it should not be made accessible to
the general public
b. W hen the message is of such long or complex nature that it is not feasible to
transmit over the radio
c. Routine administrative matters (e.g., food pickup, personal messages, etc.)
2) Officers may call the dispatcher or other personnel at headquarters on the direct line
number. Officers may also call the toll-free line at 1-800-(specific phone number
mentioned). This number is for use by department personnel only, and should not be
made available to the general public. This line is answered at the Desk and the call may
be transferred.
M) Video Monitoring
Any area of the police department building may be monitored by video cameras and/
or recorded on video tape for the purpose of security and safety.
1) The cells in the holding facility shall be monitored by the holding facility officer and/
or desk officer. Notifications of video monitoring shall be posted in the holding areas.
These notifications will be printed legibly in English and Spanish.
2) Communications Dispatch area is equipped to monitor the following areas within the
police building:
a. Cell block–Although the primary responsibility for monitoring the cell block area
is that of the Holding Facility Officer, communications personnel have the ability
to monitor the cell block. Upon request of the Desk Sergeant, communications
personnel shall monitor detainee(s) designated by the Desk Sergeant.
b. Rear entrance door–Communications personnel shall monitor the rear door which
is access to the cell block area. Communications personnel shall determine who is
to be admitted access through the rear door, identify persons requesting access, and
only admit those persons authorized to enter by releasing the electronic locking
device. If positive identification cannot be made, the person will not be allowed
entry, and will be directed to the front of police headquarters.
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• The responsibility for allowing exit through this door is that of the desk officer
only
N) Collect System
1) Communications Personnel shall monitor the collect system and review all messages
received by the collect system
a. The Collect system will be used only for official law enforcement purposes. No one
is authorized to release information from the Collect system contrary to law or
departmental regulations.
2) Incoming Messages
a. General Information
Information which is pertinent to departmental operations or investigations shall
be handled as follows:
• Immediately broadcast information to field units
• Notify a specific unit or division which may be able to or is required to act upon
the information
• Place this information on the Sergeant’s clip board
b. Specific Information
• The information will be directed to the unit., division of officer named
in the message
• I nformation which is determined by its content and nature, to pertain to a
specific unit division, or officer, will be directed accordingly
a. I f such unit, division, or officer is not on duty, communications personnel
shall, depending upon the nature and content of the message, notify a field
supervisor, make an appropriate reply if feasible, or leave a copy of the
message at the work station or mail box of the appropriate unit, division, or
person.
b. Messages requiring a reply
• The message will be directed to the unit, division, or officer, most suited
or responsible for formulating the reply.
c. I f such unit, division, or officer is not on duty, communications personnel
shall, depending on the contents or nature of the message, notify a field
supervisor, make an appropriate reply if feasible, and/or leave a copy of the
message at the work station or mail box for the appropriate unit, division or
person.
3) Outgoing messages
a. Messages initiated by the Department of Police Service
• Messages should be sent through the terminal in the Complaint Bureau
whenever possible
• Outgoing message will be prepared and coded as per NCIC Collect System
Operator Manual–A copy of this manual will be maintained at each Collect
system terminal.
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• Th
e originator (investigating officer) shall be advised of the Connecticut
Message Number, O.C.A. number and the NCIC response number if
applicable. This information shall be included in the officer’s report.
• The sender of the message shall assure all appropriate information is logged
in the Communications Log Book.
• If an additional copy of a message is required or requested by a specific unit,
division or officer, such copy shall be placed in the designated pick-up box
for the appropriate unit, division, or officer.
b. Cancellations
• Cancellations will be made by the originating unit, division or officer where
appropriate
• If the originator in unavailable, cancellation will be made by the Complaint
Bureau when on duty, otherwise by Communications personnel
• It is imperative that cancellation messages be sent promptly and a copy of the
cancellation message be forwarded to the Records Division
• Any departmental reports filed concerning the cancellation shall include the
(specific state mentioned) Message Number, O.C.A. number and the NCIC
response number, if applicable
• The sender of a cancellation message shall assure all appropriate information
is logged in the Communications Log Book
O) Alarm Monitoring, Response and False Alarms
City Code (specific city code mentioned) describes regulations and prohibitions regarding
burglar and holdup alarms used in the City of (insert City name)
1) (specific city code mentioned) requires police officers to report false alarms to the
senior police officer on duty or his/her designee. For the purposes of this requirement,
patrol officers may report false alarms to Communications personnel.
2) Communications personnel shall indicate on the CAD entry for the alarm, the reason
(if known) for the false alarm, and the disposition as reported by the responding
officer.
3) The commanding officer of Staff and Support Services shall be responsible for carrying
out the applicable provisions of (specific city code mentioned) of the City Code. Such
responsibilities include record keeping and billing functions.
P) Receipt and Delivery of Emergency Messages
On occasion, this department may receive requests to deliver emergency messages to
persons in the City of (insert City name). These requests may be received from other law
enforcement agencies, medical facilities, or private citizens. In strict compliance with
departmental directives, this department will deliver emergency messages under the
following circumstances:
1) Notifications of next of kin in the event of death or medical emergency.
2) Notifications of person to make an emergency phone call concerning a death, medical
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emergency, stranded person or traffic accident.
3) A
ny other situation which communications personnel, the desk sergeant, or a field
supervisor feels there justification to deliver an emergency message.
4) W hen delivering emergency messages, officers shall respond to the proper location and
deliver the message in an accurate, conscientious and professional manner. Such action
shall be documented in the officer’s report.
Q) Accessing External Services
The Department of Police Service frequently calls upon services external to this agency
to assist in both emergency and non-emergency situations. The procedures for contacting
and procuring such services shall be maintained and available in a reference manual in
Communications. Examples of such services include but are not limited to:
1) Fire apparatus
2) Ambulance services
3) Wrecker services
4) Funeral homes
5) Helicopter or aircraft
6) Utility companies
R) Communications Security Measures
In order to protect and safeguard communications equipment the Department of Police
Service shall adhere to the following security measures:
1) Access to communications equipment located within Police Headquarters shall be
limited to Staff and Support Services personnel, the Officer in charge of the Patrol
Division, the Chief or Deputy Chief of Police or their designees.
2) Communications equipment located at off-site facilities shall be in enclosed, secure
areas as determined by the commanding officer of Staff and Support Services.
The location of off-site communications equipment shall not be made known to the
general public. The commanding officer of the Staff and Support Services Division
shall conduct periodic inspection of off-site facilities.
3) Only repair and service personnel authorized by the commanding officer of Staff and
Support Services shall have access to communication equipment. For the purpose
of this directive, communications equipment shall mean radio transmit/receive
components, antennae, telephone switching and recording equipment, radio signal
repeaters, computer mainframe systems and any other equipment that may be added
or changed for the improvement of the operation.
A sample policy courtesy of the IACP Technology Technical Assistance Program–October 2006
Adapted from policies available at the IACP Technology Clearinghouse.
http://www.IACPtechnology.org
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Sample Press Release
This press release is included in the TDR as an example for communicating with the
media about a new technology project. As law enforcement executives tailor this policy
to their specific agencies, the press release will need to be redrafted in the context of
local collaborations, project status, and timelines. Departments must ensure that all
information in the press release is accurate.
This media contact may be the only opportunity that agencies have to introduce the
public to a department’s technology efforts. Follow-up reports of malfunctioning
technology may be difficult to manage. Prior to releasing a statement to the media
about a new technology deployment, it is essential that the communications technology
be tested repeatedly for usability.
Every effort has been made by the IACP Research Center Directorate and the
Technology Technical Assistance Program (TTAP) to ensure that this press release
incorporates the general issues related to communications technology. However, law
enforcement administrators should be cautious that no “sample” press release can meet
the needs of any given law enforcement agency. Each agency must tailor its media
relations to ensure compliance with all laws, regulations and agreements.
NEWS FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE | January 1, 2010
Mayor Doe Keeping Promise to Purchase 837 New Radios for Police Officers and Firefighters
Anytown - Ensuring that Anytown’s frontline safety forces have the best tools available to
do their job is a key goal of Mayor John H. Doe, and working together with City Council,
the City is purchasing 837 new top-of the-line communications radios for police officers and
firefighters.
“These radios are the tools that our officers need 24/7 to protect our neighborhoods and
themselves,” said Mayor John H. Doe. “We made a promise to buy more radios and improve
the communications lifeline for the divisions of police and fire, and I am pleased to move
forward with this purchase.”
The $2.5 million purchase of radios is before City Council for passage this evening. The
purchase will make radios available to all patrol officers, as well as provide 140 new radios for
firefighters.
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The new radios are capable of operating within the City’s current 800-megahertz
communications system, as well as within the upcoming 700-megahertz spectrum that future
public safety systems may have to use. Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the City of Anytown
has been a regional partner in providing multi-agency communications tools to help all
the safety forces in the state work together effectively. This effort includes purchasing radio
equipment that allows access to multiple public safety radio systems. The City’s new radio
will be able to operate on the City, County and new state MARCS radio systems, providing
up to 512-radio user talk group domains.
Courtesy of the IACP Technology Technical Assistance Program–October 2006
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Voice Communications: Legal Issues
Legal Issues
Source: U.S. Department of State
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has established standards for
transmitting frequency accuracy and for purity, power, and stability of all transmissions,
insuring that a station meets all applicable FCC standards, avoids the possibility of
an FCC citation (and possible fine), and makes a station a better neighbor to others
operating on the same and adjacent frequencies. FCC technical standards, like all
government regulations, are in a continuous state of flux. It is important that law
enforcement agencies remain current on the latest issues before the FCC.
Lieutenant Michael E. Bennett, (Ret.)
Director, Electronic Systems Division—Maryland State Police
Since September 11, 2001, the effectiveness of America’s communications capabilities
in support of the information needs of first responders and other public safety
workers has been a matter of concern to Congress. The Intelligence Reform and
Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458) included sections that responded
to recommendations made by the 9/11 Commission, in its report of July 2004, and
by others in recent years, regarding public safety communications. Much still needs
to be done to bring the United States to the threshold of adequate communications
capabilities in emergencies. Congress can expect that the many advocates for public
safety, in all its forms, will continue to push for improvements in public safety
communications and interoperability.
This report provides an analysis of major policy questions regarding public safety
communications. The 9/11 Commission recommendations for action to improve
communications and the testimony and comments of experts provide a framework
to review what has been accomplished since 9/11, what legislative initiatives could be
considered by the 109th Congress, and longer term goals and concerns. Major issues
include the following:
• Unifying spectrum policy and communications policy at every level
• Using signal corps type skills and technology, as suggested by the 9/11
Commission, to achieve interoperability
• Evaluating the pace and effectiveness of federal actions taken to-date
Congress has responded by requiring a number of studies and pilot projects, the results
of which could shape policy decisions in the future. In particular, both Congress and
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the Bush Administration have set requirements for the Department of Homeland Security
that include developing a strategy for spectrum use and evaluating its role in public safety
communications.
Progress and Goals
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission)
analysis of communications difficulties on September 11, 2001 was summarized in the
following recommendation.
Congress should support pending legislation which provides for the expedited and increased
assignment of radio spectrum for public safety purposes. Furthermore, high-risk urban
areas such as New York City and Washington, D.C., should establish signal corps units
to ensure communications connectivity between and among civilian authorities, local first
responders, and the National Guard. Federal funding of such units should be given high
priority by Congress.1 The Commission, in this paragraph, recognized the important link
between access to spectrum and the effectiveness of communications technology. Briefly, the
recommendation says:
• Free up and assign more spectrum for public safety use
• Establish communications support (the role of a signal corps typically is to provide
information systems and networks for real-time command and control)
• With interoperable communications (connectivity)
• Fund these communications operations for high-risk urban areas
The 9/11 Commission recommendations for public safety are a pithy summation of issues
raised in the last decade or so. Provisions in the act that respond to the recommendations of
the Commission and of the public safety community, among others, are discussed below.
Spectrum Allocation
The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 requires the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) to allocate 24 MHz of spectrum at 700 MHz3 to public safety, without providing a
hard deadline for the transfer.
Beginning with the 107th Congress, Legislation has introduced in each Congress legislation
that would assure the timely release of radio channels at 700 MHZ for public safety use.
Sense of Congress—The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act (P.L. 108-458)
provides the sense of Congress that it “must act to pass legislation in the first session of the
109th Congress that establishes a comprehensive approach to the timely return of analog
broadcast spectrum as early as December 31, 2006,” and that any delay “will delay the ability
of public safety entities to begin planning to use this needed spectrum.”
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Improving Spectrum Capacity for Public Safety—Proposed legislation would require
the FCC, in consultation with the Secretary of Homeland Security and the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), to conduct a study on
the spectrum needs for public safety, including the possibility of increasing the amount of
spectrum at 700 MHz. This provision is responsive to the many public safety officials who
believe that additional spectrum should be assigned for public safety use–and not exclusively
for first responders. In addition to providing spectrum for other types of users, the spectrum
available for public safety should be able to support high-speed transmissions capable of
quickly sending data (such as photographs, floor plans and live video).
FCC Commissioner comments:
“A useful report to Congress will:
• Include a survey of what spectrum is currently being used by which entities across the
country
• Understand that not all frequencies are the same and therefore assess whether we are
matching spectrum with appropriate physical characteristics to current and future
public safety needs
• Indicate whether some bands are being under utilized because public safety needs
have changed since initial allocation
• Assess the current interference situation in public safety bands
• Identify various approaches to interoperability and their success or failure
• Identify the current availability of interoperable channels and whether or not they are
widely used and why
• Determine how a nationwide interoperable network can connect not only local police
and fire entities, but also the FBI, DHS, FEMA, and other critical federal agencies
I also believe that we must begin to understand that emergency rooms and the medical
community are integral parts of emergency response and homeland security. If we build a
system that excludes the medical community it will be dangerously incomplete.”
The Cost of Fragmentation—The number of radio frequencies available for interoperable
communications capability can significantly impact first responder communications, and
the range of these frequencies can significantly impact the cost of equipment. The greater
the number of communications devices using compatible frequencies, the greater are the
opportunities for economies of scale in production, which in turn typically lowers the cost
and final price on equipment. Purchasing “cross-talk” equipment–to provide interoperability
by linking radio frequencies through a black box–can run into the millions of dollars.
Communications Support and Interoperability
The 9/11 Commission recommendation to use signal corps to assure connectivity in highrisk areas is apparently a reference to the Army Signal Corps.
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The role of a signal corps typically is to provide information systems and networks for
real-time command and control. The Army maintains mobile units to provide capacity and
specialized support to military operations, worldwide.
This act sets the following program goals for the Department of Homeland Security and the
FCC.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Develop a comprehensive, national approach for achieving interoperability
Coordinate with other federal agencies
Establish appropriate minimum capabilities for interoperability
Accelerate development of voluntary standards
Encourage open architecture and commercial products
Assist other agencies with research and development
Prioritize within DHS for research, development, testing and related programs
Establish coordinated guidance for federal grant programs
Provide technical assistance
Develop and disseminate best practices
Establish performance measurements and milestones for systematic measurement of
progress
SAFECOM—Responsibility to coordinate and rationalize federal networks, and to
support interoperability, has been assigned to SAFECOM by the Office of Management
and Budget (OMB) as an e-government initiative. This role has been supported by the
Administration and confirmed by Congress with language in the National Intelligence and
Terrorism Prevention Act. Programs at SAFECOM, now placed within the DHS Office
for Interoperability and Compatability, are primarily consultative in nature and focused on
administrative issues.
Integrated Wireless Network—Separately, an Integrated Wireless Network (IWN) for law
enforcement is being planned as a joint program by the Departments of Justice, the Treasury,
and Homeland Security. IWN, from its description, will have limited interoperability at
the state and local level. The described objective of IWN is network integration for “the
nation’s law enforcement wireless communication, and data exchange capability through the
use of a secure integrated wireless network.” Most of the parameters of the IWN program
(equipment, technologies, standards, use of spectrum, etc.) will be established through the
final choice of vendor or vendors and the network solutions proposed. There are some specific
requirements, such as for open standards or standards that are readily available to all, such as
Project 25, and use of VHF frequencies already assigned to federal users. The departmental
objectives for coverage are: major metropolitan areas; major highways; U.S. land and sea
border areas; and ports of entry. Although the network being sought is intended to serve law
enforcement users within the three sponsoring departments, descriptions of the program
invoke the possibility that IWN will provide the template for national interoperability.
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First Responders—In terms of achieving interoperability for the nation’s first responders, the
deployment of IWN could be viewed by some as a glass that is either half empty or half full.
Among the positive contributions that IWN will provide to public safety communications
are: the eventual adoption, on a massive scale, of a network architecture that can be
emulated by all–presumedly with standardized interfaces; coordination of communications
and interoperability among important components of homeland security; and significant
improvements in communications technology and the efficient use of spectrum. The
Government Accountability Office (GAO) stated that “federal funding assistance programs
to state and local governments do not fully support regional planning for communications
interoperability.”
Provisions of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act permit federal funding
programs to make multi-year commitments for interoperable communications for up to three
years, with a ceiling of $150 million for future obligations. The act authorizes annual sums
for a period of five years to be used for programs to improve interoperability and to assist
interoperable capability in high risk urban areas; the 2005 authorization is $22,105,000; the
amount rises each year to $24,879,000 in 2009.
Although the need for more funding appears to be at the top of almost any list regarding
interoperable communications policy, many have expressed concern that there is no strategy
that prioritizes what needs to be funded though federal programs, leading to waste and
inequities.
High-Risk Urban Areas
The 9/11 Commission recommended and urged immediate funding of signal corps in highrisk urban areas to assure connectivity “among civilian authorities, local first responders,
and the National Guard.” Minimum capabilities for “all levels of government agencies,”
first responders, and others include the ability to communicate with each other and to have
“appropriate and timely access” to the Information Sharing Environment.
Underscoring the need to aid first responders in urban areas, H.R. 1795 (Representative
Maloney) would require DHS to provide a communications system for the New York City
Fire Department, including radios for the entire department and upgrades to its dispatch
system. The bill specifies that such a network should be “seamless from the receipt of a
9-1-1 call to the dispatch of the firefighter,” and interoperable with other public safety offices
within the city. Other systems requirements include being able to transmit a firefighter’s
identity and location; sufficient capacity to send, in real time, data about buildings and
property; performance tested for operation in “all locations and under all conditions in which
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firefighters can reasonably be expected to work . . .”
Federal Planning
On November 30, 2004, President George W. Bush issued a memorandum to the heads
of Executive Departments and agencies regarding steps to be taken to improve the
management of spectrum assigned for federal use.
State Planning
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act links grant-making with planning
efforts in its provisions. Requirements for planning for spectrum and interoperability in
order to qualify for funding assistance include, 1) description of available radio frequency
uses and planned uses; 2) description of how plans for spectrum use and interoperability are
compatible with plans for “federal, state and local governmental entities, military installations,
foreign governments, critical infrastructure, and other relevant entities” and, 3) inclusion of a
five-year plan showing how resources will be used.
Convergence and Coordination
The concept of public safety communications is expanding as new technology makes it
possible to include many whose role in preventing or responding to disaster lies outside
the conventional definition of first responder. A more inclusive description of public safety
responders might include utility workers (often among the first on the scene, to shut
down power sources), health care workers other than those in emergency medical services,
operators in 9-1-1 call centers, and bystanders at the scene of an accident or disaster. A focus
group for the National Reliability and Interoperability Council (NRIC VII) suggests the
term “emergency agency” and provides a suggested list of “agents” that might be part of an
expanded “emergency response internetwork;” technology would provide the capability to link
all parties and policy would determine the circumstances for, and type of, communication.
Some Recommendations from the Public Safety Sector
Listed below are some key components of a desirable public safety communications policy
for first responders described in the Public Safety Wireless Advisory Committee (PSWAC)
study and in more recent reports, testimony, and other comments cited in this report.
According to these sources, a national policy for public safety communications needs to
address and correlate a myriad of complex goals, such as:
• Coordinated assignment and use of spectrum at various frequencies
• Muscular and sustained efforts to complete the development and application of
technical and operational standards
• Public sector adaptation of new technologies already available in the private sector
such as for high-speed, data rich, and video or image transmissions
• Long-term support of research and development for new technology
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• Coherent goals that encourage private investment in technology development
• Nationwide network of communications operations centers (regional signal corps)
that can serve as backup facilities to each other and to state and interstate centers and
networks
• Interoperability of communications among first responders and public safety agencies
• Managerial structure that can successfully coordinate not only disparate federal, state,
and local agencies but also the different cultural and technical needs of independent
first responder units
• Framework to match policy goals with implementation needs to assure the
effectiveness of federal funding for programs and grants
Provisions in the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act—Congress has
responded with provisions in the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act that
provide specific instructions to federal departments and agencies to take actions to meet
many of the goals outlined above, as well as respond to other concerns articulated by the
public safety community.
The achievement of a comprehensive set of solutions for interoperability outside the federal
government appears to remain elusive. Participation of the federal government in a national
solution for interoperability does not necessarily require federal ownership. The federal
government is an important component, however, of any network that might be put in place to
provide interoperable communications.
Federal Administration—The key federal agencies for spectrum management and first
responder communications are the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and
the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). The lead
federal program for fostering interoperability is administered by the Wireless Public
SAFEty Interoperable COMmunications Program, dubbed Project SAFECOM, part of
the Department of Homeland Security. DHS has created an Office of Interoperability
and Compatibility (OIC) of which SAFECOM is a part. DHS has also announced
the organization of a National Incident Management System (NIMS) in response to a
Presidential Directive (HSPD-5). A NIMS Integration Center is planned to deal with
compatibility and will be responsible for at least some interoperable communications.
National Telecommunications and Information Administration—To address the need
for interoperability spectrum, in June 1999 the NTIA designated certain federallyallocated radio frequencies for use by federal, state, and local law enforcement and incident
response entities. The frequencies are from exclusive federal spectrum, and are adjacent to
spectrum used by state and local governments. NTIA’s “interoperability plan,” –developed
in coordination with the Interdepartmental Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC)–is used to
improve communications in response to emergencies and threats to public safety. In 1996,
the NTIA created a public safety program to coordinate federal government activities for
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spectrum and telecommunications related to public safety. Today, its successor, the Public
Safety Division of the Office of Spectrum Management, participates in various initiatives to
improve and coordinate public safety communications.
Federal Communications Commission—Over roughly the last 20 years, the FCC has
initiated several programs that involve state, local, tribal and–usually - private sector
representatives. In 1986, it formed the National Public Safety Planning Advisory Committee
to advise it on management of spectrum in the 800 MHZ band, newly designated for public
safety. The following year, the FCC adopted a Public Safety National Plan that, among other
things, established Regional Planning Committees (RPCs) to develop plans that met specific
needs. The FCC encourages the formation of RPCs with a broad base of participation.
The RPCs have flexibility in determining how best to meet state andlocal needs, including
spectrum use and technology.
Homeland Security—Among actions by the FCC specifically in support of homeland
security were the chartering of the Media Security and Reliability Council (MSRC) and
the renewal of the charter for the Network Reliability and Interoperability Council (NRIC).
Both of these are Federal Advisory Committees.
Regarding interoperability, the FCC describes its role as “directing efforts toward allocating
additional spectrum for public safety systems, nurturing technological developments that
enhance interoperability and providing its expertise and input for interagency efforts such as
SAFECOM.”
Department of Homeland Security, Office of Interoperability and Compatibility—The
function of the Office of Interoperability and Compatibility (OIC) is to address the larger
issues of interoperability. Among the goals of the OIC is the “leveraging” of “the vast range of
interoperability programs and related efforts spread across the Federal Government” to
“reduce unnecessary duplication” and “ensure consistency” in “research and development,
testing and evaluation (RDT&E), standards, technical assistance, training, and grant funding
related to interoperability.”
SAFECOM—With the support of the Administration, Project SAFECOM was designated
the umbrella organization for federal support of interoperable communications. It was agreed
within DHS that SAFECOM would be part of the Science and Technology Directorate, in
line with a policy for placing technology prototype projects under a single directorate; this
decision was reportedly based on the research-oriented nature of the programs envisioned for
SAFECOM by its administrators.
SAFECOM absorbed the Public Safety Wireless Network (PSWN) Program, previously
operated jointly by the Departments of Justice and the Treasury. PSWN was created to
respond to recommendations made by the Public Safety Wireless Advisory Committee
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regarding the improvement of public safety communications over wireless networks. PSWN
operated as an advocate for spectrum management policies that would improve wireless
network capacity and capability for public safety. SAFECOM, however, has no authority
over spectrum management decisions. The following quote is a summary of SAFECOM’s
position on spectrum policy.
Spectrum policy is an essential issue in the public safety communication arena. Unfortunately,
State and local public safety representatives are frequently not included in spectrum policy
decisions, despite their majority ownership of the communications infrastructure and their
importance as providers of public and homeland security. SAFECOM will hence play a role
in representing the views of State and local stakeholders on spectrum issues within the
Federal Government.
Regional Technology Integration Initiative
In June 2004, the Directorate of Science and Technology introduced a new initiative to
facilitate the transition of innovative technologies and organizational concepts to regional,
state, and local authorities. The initiative has selected four urban areas from among those
currently part of the Homeland Security Urban Area Security Initiative. Two of the areas
that have been reported as choices are Cincinnati, Ohio and Anaheim, California. Each area
will reportedly receive $10 million to expand new systems that test more advanced
technologies for public safety communications, including interoperability. Anaheim, for
example, reportedly has created a virtual operations center (instead of a building), relying on
network technology to connect police, fire, medical services and public utilities in case of an
emergency. The announced goal is to get all who respond to disasters and other emergencies
to work from a common base.
National Incident Management System—NIMS also has announced plans to address
questions of interoperability and communications, although no mention of spectrum policy is
mentioned in the DHS report on NIMS issued March 1, 2004.
Integrated Wireless Network—The Integrated Wireless Network (IWN) for law
enforcement is being planned as a joint program by the Departments of Justice, the Treasury,
and Homeland Security. IWN, from its description, will have limited interoperability at the
state and local level. The described objective of IWN is network integration for “the nation’s
law enforcement wireless communication, and data exchange capability through the use of a
secure integrated wireless network.”
Other Coordinating Bodies
SAFECOM has created a Federal Interoperability Coordination Council (FICC), made up
of “all the federal agencies with programs that address interoperability.” The National Public
Safety Telecommunications Council (NPSTC) is another important coordinating body.
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NPSTC unites public safety associations to work with federal agencies, the NCC, SIECs and
other groups to address public safety communications issues. It has been supported by the
AGILE Program, created by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). AGILE has addressed
interim and long-term interoperability solutions in part by testing standards for wireless
telecommunications and information technology applications. The AGILE Program also has
provided funding to Regional Planning Committees for start-up costs and the preparation and
distribution of regional plans. AGILE is being restructured, to be replaced by a more limited
function in Communications Technology, CommTech. CommTech is not designed to play a
primary role in coordinating interoperability policy within the public safety community.
Adapted from U.S. Department of State Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports and Issue
Briefs­—RL 32594.
­http://www.fpc.state.gov
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Additional Resources
Technology today has become a critical component in every law enforcement agency’s
arsenal against crime. It is imperative that all law enforcement agencies have at their
disposal the latest technology to not only solve crime but also to be used as a force
multiplier in an era of shrinking personnel resources. It is important for every law
enforcement executive to maximize both their awareness of technology and locations
of technology resources. As we all know technology is expensive and it is often times
consuming to ascertain which is the best technology for a specific application within
a law enforcement agency. To make this task easier, the following approaches are
suggested:
• The chief law enforcement executive should be committed to staying current on
technology issues.
• Develop and maintain a working partnership with the International Association
of Chiefs of Police, a leader in developing and implementing technology.
• Maintain an awareness of the role of the federal government with law
enforcement technology, especially the National Law Enforcement and
Corrections Technology Centers, and use them as a research and development
program.
• Refine the ability to learn from others successes as well as failures.
Technology today is often the difference between solving a current or cold criminal case,
saving a life and protecting our officers from harm. An agency executive who fails to
bring modern technology into law enforcement agency is truly doing a disservice to the
agency, the officers, and the community. It is the intention of this publication to assist
the law enforcement executive with this exact task, to utilize technology to make our
communities safer, our officers safer, prevent and solve crime.
Chief Paul Schultz
Lafayette Police Department—Colorado
Associations
Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials-International, Inc. (APCO)—The
world’s oldest and largest not-for-profit professional organization dedicated to the enhancement
of public safety communications.
http://www.apcointl.org
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Law Enforcement Information Technology Standards Council (LEITSC)—Is a U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs funded program whose mission is to foster the
growth of strategic planning and implementation of integrated justice systems.
http://www.leitsc.org/index.html
National Association of State Chief Information Officers (NASCIO)—Represents state
chief information officers and information resource executives and managers from the 50 states,
six U. S. territories, and the District of Columbia. State members are senior officials from any of
the three branches of state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for
information resource management.
http://www.nascio.org
National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center (NLECTC)—Created in 1994,
as a component of the National Institute of Justice’s (NIJ’s) Office of Science and Technology,
the NLECTC system serves as an “honest broker” offering support, research findings, and
technological expertise to help State and local law enforcement and corrections personnel perform
their duties more safely and efficiently.
http://www.nlectc.org
National Public Safety Telecommunications Council (NPSTC)—Formed on May 1, 1997,
NPSTC is a federation of organizations representing public safety telecommunications.
NPSTC was originally formed to encourage and facilitate implementation of the findings and
recommendations of the Public Safety Wireless Advisory Committee (PSWAC), established in
1994 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and National Telecommunications
and Information Administration (NTIA) to evaluate the wireless communications needs of local,
tribal, State, and Federal public safety agencies through the year 2010, identify problems, and
recommend possible solutions.
NPSTC has since taken on additional responsibilities including implementing the recommendations of the FCC Public Safety National Coordination Committee (NCC) and the support and
development of the Computer Assisted Pre-coordination and Resource Database System
(CAPRAD) for 700 MHz spectrum to assist the Regional Planning Committees (RPCs).
http://www.npstc.org
Police Executive Research Forum (PERF)—is an organization dedicated to improving
policing and advancing professionalism through research, public policy debate, provision of
management services and executive development training and publishing
http://www.policeforum.org
National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA)—Now in its 62nd year of serving the law enforcement/
criminal justice professionals of the nation, is a non-profit organization dedicated to raising
the level of professionalism among those in the criminal justice field.
http://www.sheriffs.org
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U.S. Conference of Mayors—The official nonpartisan organization of the nation’s 1183 U.S.
cities with populations of 30,000 or more. Each city is represented in the Conference by
its chief elected official, the mayor. The primary roles of the Conference of Mayors are the
following:
•
•
•
•
•
Promote the development of effective national urban/suburban policy
Strengthen federal-city relationships
Ensure that federal policy meets urban needs
Provide mayors with leadership and management tools
Create a forum in which mayors can share ideas and information
http://www.usconferenceofmayors.org
National Consortium for Justice Information and Statistics (SEARCH)—A nonprofit
membership organization created by and for the states. SEARCH is dedicated to improving
the quality of justice and public safety through the use, management adn exhcange of
information; application and new technologies; and responsible law and policy, while
safeguarding security and privacy.
http://www.search.org
Government
National Institute of Justice (NIJ)—The research, development, and evaluation agency of
the U.S. Department of Justice and is dedicated to researching crime control and justice
issues. NIJ provides objective, independent, evidence-based knowledge and tools to meet the
challenges of crime and justice, particularly at the State and local levels.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)—Established the office of the 800 MHz
Transition Administrator (TA) to facilitate a smooth transition to the new 800 MHz band
plan. Among its duties, the TA establishes reconfiguration guidelines, specifies replacement
channels, reviews reconfiguration cost estimates, monitors payment of reconfiguration costs,
manages the relocation schedule, facilitates issue resolution and administers the alternate
dispute resolution process.
http://www.800ta.org/default.asp
National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA)—The President’s
principal adviser on telecommunications and information policy issues, and in this role
frequently works with other Executive Branch agencies to develop and present the
Administration’s position on these issues.
http://www.ntia.doc.gov
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Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate’s
(S&T) Office for Interoperability and Compatibility’s (OIC) SAFECOM Program—A
communications program that provides research, development, testing and evaluation,
guidance and assistance for local, tribal, state, and federal public safety agencies working to
improve public safety response through more effective and efficient interoperable wireless
communications.
http://www.safecomprogram.gov/SAFECOM
NIST (National Institute for Standards and Technology)—A non-regulatory federal agency
within the U.S. Commerce Department’s Technology Administration. NIST’s mission is to
promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science,
standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and improve our quality of
life.
http://www.nist.gov
Department of Justice, Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS)—Was created as a
result of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. As a component of
the Justice Department, the mission of the COPS Office is to advance community policing as
an effective strategy in communities’ efforts to improve public safety.
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)—An independent United States government
agency, directly responsible to Congress. The FCC was established by the Communications
Act of 1934 and is charged with regulating interstate and international communications
by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. The FCC’s jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the
District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions.
http://www.fcc.gov
Wireless Telecommunications Bureau (WTB)—Handles all FCC domestic wireless
telecommunications programs and policies, except those involving satellite communications
or broadcasting, including licensing, enforcement, and regulatory functions.
http://wireless.fcc.gov/organization/
Miscellaneous
FCW Media Group—Established in 1987 this group uniquely integrates government,
business and technology news and information to produce resources that help government IT
decision-makers achieve results and meet agency missions.
http://www.fcw.com
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Government Computer News—A leading newsmagazine in the government IT market,
reaching 87,500 program managers, technology managers, and agency executives with
decision-making authority. Published 30 times a year and founded in 1982, each issue
features special reports, case studies and analysis, product reviews and buyer’s guides.
http://www.gcn.com
Government Technology—provides information technology case studies, applications, news
and best practices by and for international, state, city and county government.
http://www.govtech.net
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Glossary
3G (Third Generation Wireless)—The next generation of wireless communications beyond
today’s digital PCS technologies. When available, 3G wireless technologies will allow for
much higher transmission rates to wireless devices leading to more useful services and a
better user experience.
A
Analog—A method of modulating radio signals so that they can carry information such as
voice or data.
Antenna—Component of radio systems that directs incoming and outgoing radio waves.
Antenna Gain—In antenna design, gain is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of
an antenna’s radiation pattern in the direction of strongest radiation to that of a reference
antenna.
B
Band—A small section of the spectrum of radio communication frequencies, in which
channels are usually used or set aside for the same purpose
Bandwidth—The numerical difference between the upper and lower frequencies of a band
of electromagnetic radiation, especially an assigned range of radio frequencies.
Beamforming—Signal processing technique used with arrays of transmitters or receivers
that controls the directionality of, or sensitivity to, a radiation pattern.
C
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)—A digital communication technology used
by some carriers to provide PCS service. Also known as IS-95A or cdmaOne.
Channel—A specified frequency band for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic
signals.
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CAI (Common Air Interface)—Standard specifies the type and content of signals
transmitted by compliant radios. One radio using CAI should be able to communicate with
any other CAI radio, regardless of manufacturer.
Cellular Phone—Wireless telephone that permits telecommunication within a defined area
that may include hundreds of square miles, using radio waves in the 800–900 megahertz
(MHz) band.
Cycle—The entire pattern of the wave, before it begins to repeat itself.
D
dB (Decibel)—A unit of measure used to express relative difference in power or intensity of
sound.
Dipole antenna (two poles)—Is the simplest type of antenna, consisting of an electrically
conducting wire or rod one half the length of the maximum desired wavelength.
Digital—A method of encoding information using a binary code of 0s and 1s. Most newer
wireless phones and networks use digital technology.
Directional Antenna—An antenna that transmits or receives signals only in a narrow angle.
Dispatch—To relegate to a specific destination or send on specific business.
Duplexer—A device that combines two or more signals onto a common channel or medium
to increase its transmission efficiency.
E
EDGE (Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution)—A further development of the GSM
protocol designed to handle data at speeds up to 384 Kbps. Considered to be 3G wireless
technology.
ESMR (Enhanced Specialized Mobile Radio)—Using frequency bands originally allocated
for two-way dispatch services
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F
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)—The technology used in the analog cellular
telephone network that divides the spectrum into 30 kHz channels.
Frequency – The number of cycles or events per unit time.
G
GETS (Government Emergency Telecommunications Service)—A nationwide landline
priority telecommunications service.
GSM (Global Standard for Mobile)—A digital communication technology used by some
carriers to provide PCS service. Other technologies used are CDMA and TDMA.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)—An emerging technology standard for high speed
data transmission over GSM networks.
I
Infrastructure—The hardware and software needed to complete and maintain the radio
communications system.
Interference—Extraneous energy, from natural or man-made sources, that impedes the
reception of desired signals.
Interoperability—The ability of public safety agencies to be able to talk to one another—to
exchange voice and/or data with one another on demand in real time.
Instate Compact Agreement—A written contract between states to cooperate on a policy
issue or program that extends across and through state boundaries.
K
KHz (Kilohertz)—A unit of frequency denoting one thousand (103) Hz.
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L
LMR (Land Mobile Radio)—Wireless telephone that permits telecommunication within
a defined area that may include hundreds of square miles, using radio waves in the 800–900
megahertz (MHz) band.
M
MHz (Megahertz)—A unit of frequency denoting one million (106) Hz.
Microwave Communications—The transmission of signals by sending microwaves, either
directly or via a satellite.
Mission Critical—Vital to the operation of the organization. The term is very popular for
describing the applications required to run the day-to-day business.
Metropolitan Service Area (MSA)—An urban area with at least 50,000 people plus
surrounding counties. There are 306 MSAs and 428 RSAs (rural service areas) in the U.S.
MSAs and RSAs are used to allocate cellular licenses.
Multiplexer—A device that can interleave two or more activities
N
National Communications System (NCS)—Part of the Department of Homeland Security’s
Preparedness Directorate, offers priority communications services to emergency personnel at
the local, state and Federal government levels, as well as to the industry personnel in support
roles.
P
PSAP (Public Safety Answering Point)—A facility equipped and staffed to receive
emergency calls requesting police, fire, emergency medical and other public safety services via
telephone and other communication devices.
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R
Radio Cache—A portable or permanent storage facility for radios.
Radio Channel—An assigned band of frequencies sufficient for radio communication.
Radio Communication— Telecommunication by means of radio waves.
Radio Equipment—As defined in Federal Information Management Regulations, any
equipment or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment (both transmission and
reception) that is used to communicate over a distance by modulating and radiating
electromagnetic waves in space without artificial guide.
Radio-Frequency Fingerprinting—An electronic process that identifies each individual
wireless handset by examining its unique radio transmission characteristics. Fingerprinting
is used to reduce fraud since the illegal phone can not duplicate the legal phone’s radiofrequency fingerprint.
Radio Wave—An electromagnetic wave within the range of radio frequencies.
Receiver—A device, such as a part of a radio that receives incoming radio signals and
converts them to perceptible forms, such as sound or light.
Repeater—A communications device that amplifies (analog) or regenerates (digital) the data
signal in order to extend the transmission distance. Available for both electronic and optical
signals, repeaters are used extensively in long distance transmission.
RF (Radio Frequency)—Any frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum normally
associated with radio wave propagation.
RFI (Radio Frequency Interference)—An undesired radio signal that interferes with a radio
communications signal causing extraneous noise and/or signal dropouts.
RF Noise—Undesired radio signals that alters a radio communications signal causing
extraneous sounds during transmission and/or reception.
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S
Smart Antenna—A system of antenna arrays with smart signal processing algorithms that
are used to identify the direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal, and use it to calculate
beamforming vectors, to track and locate the antenna beam on the mobile/target. The
antenna could optionally be any sensor.
Specialized Mobile Radios (SMR)—The communications services used by police,
ambulances, taxicabs, trucks and other delivery vehicles.
Spectrum—The entire range electromagnetic frequencies.
Spread Spectrum—A communications technology where a signal is transmitted over a broad
range of frequencies and then re-assembled when received.
T
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)—A digital communication technology used by
some carriers to provide PCS service.
Transmitter—An electronic device that generates and amplifies a carrier wave, modulates
it with a meaningful signal derived from speech or other sources, and radiates the resulting
signal from an antenna.
Trunked Radio System—A radio system used to maximize available capacity in a
two-way radio system by giving groups of users a logical “talk-group” to share for their
communications, rather than a dedicated radio frequency.
U
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)—An evolution of GSM technology
to 3G. The underlying transmission standard is WCDMA.
W
Wavelength—The distance between one peak or crest of a wave of light, heat, or other energy
and the next corresponding peak or crest.
486 | IACP/COPS Technology Technical Assistance Program