SPECIFICATION BREAKDOWN
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METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Experimental methods including laboratory, field and natural experiments
Studies using a correlational analysis
Observational techniques
Self-report techniques including questionnaire and interview
Case studies
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INVESTIGATION DESIGN
Aims and hypotheses (including directional and non-directional)
Experimental design (independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs)
Design of naturalistic observations (development and use of behavioural categories)
Design of questionnaires and interviews
Operationalisation of variables (IVs and DVs)
Pilot studies
Control of extraneous variables
Reliability and validity
Awareness of the BPS Code of Ethics, ethical issues and ways to deal with them
Selection of participants and sampling techniques (random, opportunity, volunteer)
Demand characteristics and investigator effects
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DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Presentation and interpretation of quantitative data (graphs, scattergraphs, tables)
Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data including measures of central
tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (ranges and standard
deviation)
Analysis and interpretation of correlational data (positive, negative, coefficients)
Presentation of qualitative data
Processes involved in content analysis
www.aqa.org.uk
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Methods and Techniques
Experimental Methods:
The term experimental method refers to the method used to carry out the
experiment. There are three main types of experiment – lab, field and
natural.
Fill in the table below:
Research
Definition:
Advantage(s)
Disadvantage(s)
Method
Laboratory
experiment
Field
experiment
Natural
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experiment
For each of the following examples identify which experimental method is
being used.
1. A researcher wanted to find out the effects of caffeine on memory. The
researcher had two groups of participants. One group drank strong
coffee and where then given a list of words to recall. The second group
were given a warm caffeine free drink and were given a list of words to
recall.
Answer: _____________________________________
2. Researchers were interested in different levels of aggression in primary
aged children between those who had and hadn’t attended day care.
They produced a sheet of behavioural categories including typical
aggressive behaviours and studied children in a primary school
playground. The children did not know they were being observed.
Answer: _____________________________________
3. Researchers were interested in attachment styles and created a scenario
within a room. The children were brought into the room with their
parents and then the parent left them alone with a stranger. The
researchers watched this behaviour from a two-way mirror.
Answer: _____________________________________
4. A researcher wanted to see if people would help someone on the tube.
They set up a situation where a confederate would collapse during a tube
journey. The confederate appeared drunk in one condition and sick in the
other condition. The researchers observed the behaviours of the
passengers witnessing the event.
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Answer: _____________________________________
What might be the ethical considerations associated with each method?
Laboratory:
Field:
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Natural:
Self-Report Techniques
Interviews and Questionnaires:
One of the easiest ways to elicit information from people is to ask them.
Psychological research likes to make use of questionnaires and interviews as an
efficient and easy way of gathering data.
Complete the diagrams to show the factors which need to be taken into
consideration when designing a questionnaire and interview:
Designing a
Questionnaire
Designing an
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Interview
Design Issues:
Sometimes questionnaire design can go drastically wrong.
Look at the
questionnaire below and identify the main errors Fraud and Fakedata have made.
Problems they cause:
How to control them:
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Main Flaws:
Case Studies
When a researcher conducts a case study, he or she is looking to gather indepth information on an individual or small group of people. The people being
studied are normally pretty unique and are studied with the aim of uncovering
answers the scientific world needs.
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Name one person studied through the use of a case study
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What were the main findings of the study?
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What are the strengths of using this method?
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What are the limitations?
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Are there any ethical issues which should be considered before/during
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the case study?
End of section assessment questions:
1) Name one advantage of conducting a lab experiment.
2) Define the term “natural experiment.”
3) List three ethical issues which might arise during a field experiment.
4) Explain how you would control for these issues.
5) What is the difference between a questionnaire and interview?
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6) What are the strengths of conducting a case study?
Investigation Design
Creating Aims and Hypotheses:
What is an aim?
What is a hypothesis?
Aims are normally very straight forward. For example, what might the aim
be for the following research questions?
1. Does background noise affect memory?
2. Do students who revise perform better in AS exams?
3. Are blondes really dumb?
An aim of a study should include both the thing being manipulated (independent
variable) and the thing being measured (dependent variable).
Aim 1 IV ___________________
Aim 1 DV __________________
Aim 2 IV ___________________
Aim 2 DV __________________
Aim 3 IV ___________________
Aim 3 DV __________________
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What might the IV and DV be for the above aims?
Operationalising Variables:
It is very important to operationalise the variables to be studied, otherwise the
researcher will not know what they are looking for and this can reduce the
validity and reliability of their data.
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Speed
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Memory
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Aggression
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How might the following variables be operationalised?
Extraneous Variables:
What is an extraneous variable and why is it important to control for them?
Identify the extraneous variable in each of the examples below:
1. The researchers were interested in the effects of time of day on
memory recall. They put all the young people in the morning condition
and all the older people in the evening condition.
2. The researchers were interested in the effects of age on memory
recall. They tested all the young people in the morning and all the
old people in the evening.
NB: Extraneous variables can also include things such as demand characteristics
and investigator effects.
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3. Researchers were looking at the effects of noise on concentration.
There were two conditions and participants were either in the noisy
or quiet condition. When the researchers were conducting the quiet
condition the thermostat broke on the radiator and the room was
very stuffy and airless.
Hypotheses:
There are two different types of hypothesis:
 One tailed (directional)
 Two tailed (non-directional)
A directional hypothesis states which direction the results will go in
and usually contains the words “there will be…” A non-directional
hypothesis is less clear of the direction the results will go in and
tends to use the words “there will be a difference…”
Write one directional and one non-directional hypothesis below
for the following research question: Does background noise affect
memory?
Directional:
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Non-Directional:
Experimental Design:
Once the researcher has chosen the experimental method which best suits the
nature of the study, they then have to choose what type of design it will have.
The choices are repeated measures, independent groups and matched pairs.
Fill in the table below:
Experimental Design:
Strengths
Repeated measures:
The same PPs are used in
both conditions.
Weaknesses
Independent Groups:
PPs
are
randomly
allocated to different
groups which represent
the different conditions.
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Matched Pairs:
Pairs of PPs are closely
matched and are then
randomly allocated to one
of the experimental
conditions.
Which design is being used here?
1) Researchers wanted to find out whether a new teaching method could
improve verbal reasoning ability in 5 year olds. In one condition the
children were taught the new method and in the other they were taught a
traditional method. Each participant in the new method group was
matched with a participant from the other condition.
2) Researchers were looking at whether people remembered more in the
morning or evening. They gave one set of participants free recall tests in
both the morning and evening and compared their results to the control
group who only took the test in the morning.
3) A researcher enrolled 20 participants into their experiment.
All
participants completed a musical task and then a written task. Their
abilities to perform under pressure were compared.
Sampling Techniques
So you’ve worked out your experimental design, but how are you going to get
your participants? These three ways are the ones you need to know:
Opportunity Sampling:
Volunteer Sampling:
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Random Sampling:
Observational Methods:
A researcher might decide to conduct an observation instead of an experiment. There
are two types of observational method to chose from – a naturalistic observation or a
controlled observation.
Both of these methods tend to look for a evidence of a
relationship between two variables (a correlation).
Be careful not to confuse a
naturalistic observation with a natural experiment - the two are different!
Fill in the table below:
Definition:
Strength:
Weakness
Example:
Naturalistic
Observation:
Controlled
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Observation:
Observations can further be divided into sub-categories:
 P____________ based
 N____- P______________ based
Which form of observation is being described below?
This form of observation requires the
researcher
to
take
part
in
the
situation being studied.
This form of observation occurs when the
researcher
Answer: _____________________
observes
behaviour
from
outside of the situation.
Answer: _____________________
Participants are usually aware that
they are being studied.
This is also
known as an overt observation.
Answer: _____________________
The participants usually do not know that
they are being studied. This is also known
as a covert observation.
Answer: _____________________
Behavioural Categories:
A behavioural category is a specific type of behaviour which is defined before
the study takes place. It allows researchers to focus their investigation on a
specific behaviour in order to gather the most valid and reliable data. Carrying
out an observation without the use of these would not be a clever idea!
Which behavioural categories would you expect to be looking out for when
conducting a naturalistic observation of aggressive behaviour in a nursery?
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Category:
Reliability and Validity:
Once a research method has been chosen the researcher needs to consider how
useful the data is going to be. The main considerations are whether it will be
reliable and valid.
The term reliability refers to how consistent the results are. In other words, if
the experiment is repeated, will the same or highly similar results occur again?
If they answer is yes, the study can be said to possess high reliability.
Validity on the other hand, is a slightly more complex concept. Fill in the box
below to identify the different types of validity.
There are a number of different factors which can reduce the internal
validity of a study. These include:
 Demand Characteristics
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 Investigator Effects
Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects:
Demand Characteristics:
Investigator Effects:
Example:
Example:
Social Desirability effects
Both of these potential threats can be controlled using either a single or double
blind technique. In a single bind technique, the researcher knows the aim of
the study but the participants do not. In a double blind technique, neither the
researcher nor the participant knows. The latter technique involves a research
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assistant carrying out the data collection on behalf of the experimenter.
Improving Validity - Pilot Studies:
Designing a pilot study is often one of the best ways to check that everything in
your actual experiment will run smoothly (as much as possible!).
A pilot study is a ___________ scale study conducted on a small sample. It
helps the researcher to identify any ___________ problems with the
___________ method, design, _____________ given to participants and so
on. Pilot studies can also check items on a ______________ to make sure that
they are easy to answer and unambiguous.
Imagine you have been asked to carry out an experiment into the effects
of music on the ability to recall words from a list.
Why is it important to carry out a pilot study before conducting the actual
experiment?
What elements of the experiment would you test in the pilot study (e.g.
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duration/volume of music playing)?
Ethical Issues:
Fill in the spider diagram below with the main ethical issues you studied at
AS.
The main
ethical issues…
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.
Questioning Ethics:
1) What is the purpose of ethical guidelines?
2) Why are they important to follow?
3) When can research be excused for not following some of these
guidelines?
4) How would you, as a researcher, control for the following ethical
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Deception
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Informed Consent
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Protection from Harm
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Right to Withdraw
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Confidentiality
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issues:
End of section assessment questions:
1) What is a directional hypothesis?
2) Is the independent variable in an experiment measured or manipulated?
3) How might the variable of time be operationalised?
4) Why is it important to control for extraneous variables?
5) How does an independent groups design differ from a repeated measures
design?
6) What is a random sample?
7) What is the difference between a controlled and naturalistic
observation?
8) How do internal and external validity differ?
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9) What are investigator effects?
Summarising Quantitative Data (in graphical form)
Graphs are a useful way of summarising data which enable psychologists to
easily see trends or patterns in data.
Three graphs which are commonly used to display quantitative data are:
Histograms
Notes:
This graph is likely to be used
when:
Bar Charts
Notes:
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This graph is likely to be used
when:
Scattergrams
Notes:
This graph is likely to be used
when:
Task: Fill in the gaps below.
The bars on a ____________ are joined together and are all of an
identical ______________.
A histogram is commonly used to show __________ (e.g. IQ or test)
Bar charts are a useful way of showing ___________ statistics (e.g.
percentages or ratios)
Bars on a bar chart are not ___________ together because the scale is
not _______________.
Scattergrams
are
used
to
show
the
____________
and
_____________ of correlations.
Correlations can either be ______________, negative or have no
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correlation.
Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data:
Measures of central tendency tell the researcher where the average is in a set
of data. The three measures of central tendency you need to know well are the
mean, median and mode.
Complete the sentences below:
1. The _________ is known as the ___________ average. It is calculated
by adding up all the scores in a set of data and then ___________ them
by the total ___________ of scores.
2. The _____________ is the middle value of a data set. It is calculated
by putting the data in _______ and finding the __________ score. If
there is an ________ number of scores, you should add the two middle
scores together and __________ by ____.
3. The ___________ is the most ___________ occurring score. It is the
easiest to calculate – simply put your data in ________ and work out
which one occurs the __________!
Calculate the mean, median and mode for the following:
1a)
Data from a Psychology quiz:
1,2,3,7,10,20,30,43,47,48,50.
Mean =
1b)
Median=
Mode=
The number of faces recalled out of 12 in a free recall task:
1,1,5,2,3,7,6,5,2,1,8,7,9,5,4,3,2,5.
Mean=
1c)
Median=
Mode=
Scores on a questionnaire (out of 25).
Mean=
Median=
Mode=
25
20,30,25,16,13,14,25,26,28.
In addition to wanting to know the statistical average of the data, researchers
occasionally want to work out how much variability there is in a data set. This is known
as a measure of dispersion.
One way of calculation the measure of dispersion within a data set is to calculate the
range. This incredibly easy method involves subtracting the lowest score from the
highest score. That is it!
What is the range for the following data sets?
a) 5, 4 ,1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 7, 2.
b) 9, 11, 16, 4, 6, 17, 22, 35, 2, 12, 13.
c) 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14, 12, 16, 1, 9, 15, 17.
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is the measure of the spread of scores around the mean (in other
words, it tells us how far the scores are scattered around the mean). It is the most
powerful measure of dispersion as it takes all scores into account. As a result, it is
often used my researchers who want to know more about the dispersion of their data.
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Below is an example of how a standard deviation might look.
Good News! You will not be asked to calculate a standard deviation in the exam.
However, you may be asked what the standard deviation tells you about a set of
data and why it is used.
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If the standard deviation is ___________ it tells us that many of the
data points are far away from the mean.
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If the standard deviation is small, it tells us that the data was
__________ clustered around the mean.
No standard deviation tells us that all data values were the same – and there
was no variation at all! This happens when all the data points are equal.
Exam Question – June 2011 (modified)
1) Two different drug therapies were tested on a group of patients. The
table below shows the improvement made between the start and end of
the treatment. Explain what these findings suggest about the different
therapies.
Therapy A
Therapy B
Average
improvement
score
6.5
6
Range
Standard Deviation
5
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5.9
7.8
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
Correlational Analysis:
Correlations are designed to investigate the strength and direction of a
relationship between two variables.
The strength of this correlation is
expressed by the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is always
between +1 and -1 where +1 represents a perfect positive correlation and -1
represents a perfect negative correlation. A correlation coefficient of 0 means
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that there is no correlation between the two variables.
A researcher wanted to find out the relationship between the number of hours
a child spent in day care and their level of aggression. Plot the following data
at the bottom of the page.
Does the scattergram show a negative or
Participant
Number of hours
Score on
in day care per
aggression scale
week
(out of 50)
1
30
45
2
35
48
3
10
12
4
35
40
5
30
28
6
6
6
7
8
10
8
15
20
9
40
48
10
20
25
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positive correlation? What does this mean?
Presenting and Analysing Qualitative Data:
Due to its richness and non-numerical nature, qualitative data (i.e. words,
pictures) cannot be analysed or displayed by the methods we have examined so
far.
Instead, this data has to be analysed using a process called content
analysis.
Traditional forms of content analysis are conducted through a number of stages
Summarise these in the chart below.
The main problem with any form of content analysis is that it can be
interpreted differently by different researchers. Taking the original data out
of context may lead to it being misinterpreted or a different slant being taken.
One way to control for this is through the use of an external party who analyse,
interpret
and
justify
every
decision
they
make
during
the
process.
the reliability of data analysis.
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Alternatively, several researchers can work together at each step to increase
End of section assessment questions:
1) What is the difference between a histogram and a bar chart?
2) Which type of data can be displayed in both graphs and tables?
3) When would you be likely to use the mode as a measure of central
tendency?
4) What does a large standard deviation suggest about the data?
5) Circle the correlation co-efficient which can be described as a strong
positive correlation.
+0.06
+0.66
+0.99
6) Correlational studies show a link between two variables but they do not
show…?
7) List the six stages involved in a traditional content analysis.
8) What is one problem that might occur when conducting a content analysis
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and how can it be controlled?
Key Terms:
Key Term:
Definition:
Example:
Aim
Null Hypothesis
Directional
Hypothesis
Non-directional
Hypothesis
Independent
groups design
Matched Pairs
design
Repeated
measured design
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Random sampling
Opportunity
sampling
Volunteer
sampling
Behaviour
categories
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Open questions
Closed questions
Likert scale
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Operationalisation
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Extraneous
Variable
Pilot Study
Reliability
Internal Validity
External Validity
Ecological
Validity
Demand
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Characteristics
Investigator
Effects
Positive
Correlation
Negative
Correlation
Correlation
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Co-efficient
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods
Method
Definition
Example:
Lab Experiment
Field Experiment
Natural
Experiment
Correlation
Naturalistic
Observation
Controlled
Observation
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Questionnaire
Interview
Surveys
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Case Study
Ethical Issues
Ethical Issue
Definition
How it is controlled
Informed Consent
Deception
Protection from
Harm
Briefing and
Debriefing
Anonymity and
Confidentiality
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Right to Withdraw
Data Analysis
Analysis
Definition
When it is used
Mean
Median
Mode
Range
Standard Deviation
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Bar Chart
Histogram
Scattergram
Table
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Content Analysis