CHAPTER 6
SOURCE, MESSAGE AND CHANNEL FACTORS
Chapter Overview
This chapter is a continuation of the discussion of communications theory and focuses on the controllable
variables that are a part of this process including source, message and channel factors. The chapter builds
on the material in Chapter 5 as decisions regarding each of these communication variables should take
into account how they impact or affect various stages or steps of the response process of the receiver. The
persuasion matrix is presented at the beginning of the chapter to provide a framework for analyzing how
decisions regarding individual communication variables might influence steps in the response hierarchy.
The primary goal of this chapter is to provide an in-depth examination of source, message and channel
factors and the various considerations involved in making advertising and promotional decisions for each
of these communication components.
Learning Objectives
1. To study the major variables in the communications system and how they influence consumers’
processing of promotional messages.
2. To examine considerations involved in the selecting a source or communicator of a promotional
message.
3. To examine different types of message structures and appeals that can be used to develop a
promotional message.
4. To consider how the channel or medium used to deliver a promotional message influences the
communication process.
Chapter and Lecture Outline
I.
INTRODUCTION AND PROMOTIONAL PLANNING THROUGH THE PERSUASION
MATRIX
This chapter analyzes the major controllable variables in the communications process—source, message
and channel or medium. Characteristics of the source are examined along with how they impact cognitive
processing. Attention is also focused on the message itself, including how structure and type of appeal
influence communication effectiveness, and on issues related to the channel or medium by which the
message is communicated. Source, message and channel factors were introduced in the previous chapter
as controllable elements in the communications model and it was noted that decisions regarding each of
these components must take into account how they interact with the response process.
A useful approach for combining the communication components and the stages of the response process
is the persuasion matrix developed by William McGuire (see Figure 6-1). In the persuasion matrix there
are two sets of variables of interest including independent variables representing the controllable elements
of the promotional program and dependent variables representing the response hierarchy or steps a
receiver goes through in being persuaded. A major consideration facing the promotional planner is how
decisions regarding each independent variable will influence the various stages of the response process.
The text provides several examples of how the persuasion matrix can be used to evaluate how decisions
regarding various controllable communication elements will affect the response process.
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Professor Notes
II.
SOURCE FACTORS
The source of a marketing communication can be viewed as a multifaceted concept since many types of
sources can be included in a promotional situation. We will use the term source to mean the person who
is involved in the communication of a promotional message in either a direct or indirect manner. A direct
source is a spokesperson who delivers a promotional message, demonstrates a product or service, and/or
endorses a product or service. Spokespeople used in advertisements or a company’s sales representatives
are examples of direct sources. An indirect source does not actually deliver a message but rather is used to
draw attention to or enhance the appearance of a promotional message. Decorative models are a good
example of an indirect source. Most of the theory and research associated with the study of source factors
deal with the characteristics of individuals as communicators of a persuasive message and how they
influence communication effectiveness. This is the approach we use to examine source characteristics.
The characteristics of the source often have a significant impact on the effect of their sales and advertising
message. A useful framework for examining source characteristics is the classification scheme developed
by Herbert Kelman, which is shown in Figure 6-2. This scheme recognizes three basic categories of
source attributes with each involving a different process by which the source influences attitudinal or
behavioral change in the message recipient.
A.
Source Credibility—refers to the extent to which the source is perceived as having knowledge,
skill or experience relevant to the communication topic and can be trusted to give an unbiased
opinion or present objective information on the issue. Information from a credible source can
influence beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or behavior through a process known as internalization
whereby the receiver desires to have an objectively correct or “right” position on an issue.
1. There are two important dimensions to credibility—expertise and trustworthiness. Examples
are provided regarding the application of expertise and trustworthiness to promotional
situations. Global Perspective 6-1 discusses how some celebrities do not endorse products or
appear in commercials in the US so they can protect their credibility. However, many of
them do endorse companies and brands in foreign countries such as Japan.
.
2. Using corporate leaders as spokespeople—Many companies believe the use of their president
or CEO is the ultimate expression of the company’s commitment to quality and customer
service. Some examples are given in the text such as Dell Computer founder and CEO
Michael Dell, Gateway founder and CEO Ted Wait, and Charles Schwab, who founded the
investment company that bears his name. It should be noted that the owners and/or presidents
of smaller companies often appear in commercials as a spokesperson as well.
3. Limitations of credible sources—Marketers generally seek to use credible sources to deliver
their promotional messages. However, in some situations a high-credibility source may be
less effective than a moderate- or low-credibility source such as when the receiver has a
favorable initial attitude or opinion. In this situation the use of a highly credible source may
lead the receiver to attribute his or her opinion to the source rather than the message being
communicated. However when a moderate- or low- credibility source is used, the receiver
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cannot really attribute his or her attitude or opinion to the source. The sleeper effect
phenomenon is another reason why a low-credibility source may be just as effective as a
source high in credibility.
B.
Source Attractiveness—a commonly used source characteristic in advertising and personal selling
is that of attractiveness. Attractiveness also has several sub-components including similarity,
familiarity and likability. The process through which attractiveness leads to persuasion is
identification whereby the receiver seeks some type of relationship with the source by adopting a
similar position. Examples are provided of the application of source attractiveness in the selection
of sales representatives as well as in advertising through the use of celebrities and decorative
models.
1. Applying similarity—marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by a
message coming from someone with whom they feel a sense of similarity. Similarity is used
in various ways in marketing communications: selecting salespeople, using former athletes to
promote beer, and in slice-of-life commercials.
2. Issues in using celebrities—advertisers have long recognized the value of using celebrities
such as television and movie stars, athletes, musicians or other popular figures to endorse
their products and services. Celebrities are used because they have “stopping power” and
draw attention to advertising messages. Another reason is the expectation that the respect,
popularity, and/or admiration the celebrity enjoys will influence consumers’ feelings and, of
course, their purchase behavior toward the brand the celebrity is endorsing. However, a
number of factors must be considered in using celebrities as a spokesperson or endorser such
as:
a. Overshadowing the product—while a celebrity may draw attention to an ad, consumers
may focus on the celebrity rather than the product or service and the advertising message.
b. Overexposure—consumers generally recognize that celebrities endorse a product or
service because they are paid to do so. When a celebrity endorses a number of products
s/he may become over exposed and lose credibility.
c. Target audiences—attention must be given to the target audience and whether the
celebrity is appropriate for the consumers in this market. For example, younger
consumers may be more impressed by celebrities than older people.
d. Risk to the advertiser—marketers must consider whether there is any risk involved in
having their company or products associated with a celebrity. Several well-known
entertainers and athletes who were used as advertising spokespersons have been involved
in activities that were potentially embarrassing to the companies whose products they
were endorsing such as Michael Jackson (Pepsi), golfer John Daly (Callaway Golf) and
former pro basketball star Dennis Rodman (Comfort Inns and Carl’s Jr.). Of course the
most notable example of the problems that may arise when a company uses a celebrity
endorser involves the O.J. Simpson case. Simpson was a very popular spokesperson for a
number of companies, perhaps most notably Hertz and his arrest prompted many
advertisers to take a closer look at the celebrities they sign as endorsers.
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e. Matching product, target market and celebrity—one of the most important considerations
in the use of celebrities is to make sure they are properly matched with the image of the
product and the characteristics of the target market. Perceived expertise of celebrities
relative to the product they are endorsing has been shown to be an important factor that
determines their effectiveness.
3. Understanding the meaning of celebrity endorsers—advertisers should use celebrities who are
connected in some way to the product or services they are endorsing. This means that
marketers must understand the image and meaning celebrities project to consumers.
A very insightful perspective on celebrity endorsement based on meaning transfer has been
developed by McCracken. His model, which is shown in Figure 6-3 of the text, suggests that
a celebrity’s effectiveness as an endorser depends on the culturally acquired meaning he or
she brings to the endorsement process. Celebrities draw these meanings from the roles they
assume in their entertainment or athletic careers. The model suggests that celebrity endorsers
bring their meanings into the advertisement and transfer them to the products they are
endorsing. These meanings are then in turn transferred to the consumer when they purchase a
product or service. The implications of the meaning transfer model should be discussed.
Current examples of celebrities whose image is capitalized on by marketers who use them in
their ads should be noted. Cycling champion Lance Armstrong is discussed in the text his
role as an endorser for various companies and brands might be discussed. Another good
example is actress Jane Seymour who has been a spokesperson for Gerber, which makes baby
food and other baby products. She is a very effective endorser because of the wholesome
image she has from her role in the family TV show Dr. Quinn Medicine Woman that was
popular for many years. She also has young twins which enhances her credibility as a mother
and spokesperson for a company such as Gerber. IMC Perspective 6-3 discusses how
marketer and ad agencies use research data such as Q scores and other factors in choosing
celebrity endorsers.
4. Decorative and physically attractive models—a common technique used by advertisers to
draw attention to an ad and enhance its effectiveness is the use of a physically attractive
model. Often these models are used in a passive or “decorative” manner rather than as active
communicators. A number of factors must be considered in using decorative models such as
whether they are appropriate or relevant to the product or service being advertised and
whether they will draw attention to the ad but not the product or advertising message. An
interesting study is noted which found that some women actually experience negative
feelings when comparing themselves with beautiful modes used in ads and the images of
physical perfection they represent. This might make for an interesting class discussion as to
whether a marketer may not want to use a highly attractive model in its advertising.
C.
Source Power—A source has power when he or she can actually administer rewards and
punishment to the receiver. Perceived power depends on several factors such as perceived
control, concern and scrutiny. Power influences persuasion through the compliance process
whereby the receiver accepts the persuasive influence of the source and yields to the advocated
position to obtain favorable reactions or avoid punishment. It is important to point out that
persuasion induced through the use of a communicator who relies on power may be superficial
and last only as long as the receiver perceives that the source can administer rewards or
punishment. The use of source power is difficult to apply in a nonpersonal influence situation
such as that found in advertising. Source power has greater application to situations involving
interpersonal influence such as in personal selling.
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III. MESSAGE FACTORS
The manner in which marketing communications are presented is very important in determining their
effectiveness. Consideration must be given not only to message content, but also to how the information
will be structured for presentation and the type of appeal that will be used.
A.
Message Structure—An important consideration in the development of a promotional message is
the manner or framework used for structuring or communicating the information. An important
aspect of message strategy is knowing the best way to communicate message points or elements.
A number of message structure considerations are discussed in the text including:
1. Order of presentation—should important message points or arguments be placed at the
beginning of the message, in the middle or at the end? A primacy effect suggests that the
information placed at the beginning of the message is most effective while a recency effect
suggests that the arguments at the end are most effective.
2. Conclusion drawing—should a message draw an explicit conclusion for the audience or allow
them to form their own conclusions? Research has shown that, in general, messages with
explicit conclusions are more easily understood and effective. However, some studies show
that the effectiveness of conclusion drawing may depend on the target audience, the type of
issue or topic and nature of the situation.
3. Message sidedness—should a marketing communication use a one-sided message whereby
only positive attributes or benefits of a product or service are mentioned or a two-sided
message where both strong and weak points or attributes are presented?
4. Refutation—this is a special type of two-sided message whereby both sides of an issue are
presented and arguments are offered to refute the opposing viewpoint or negative information
(see the Almond Board of California ad in Exhibit 6-11).
5. Verbal versus visual messages—both the verbal and nonverbal or visual portions of an
advertisement influence the way an advertising message is processed. Verbal or copy aspects
of the message are important in conveying rational or factual messages while nonverbal or
visual elements of an ad are important for developing emotional and image based
associations.
B.
Message Appeals—Another important aspect of message strategy concerns the manner or style
used to communicate the promotional message. One of the most important creative strategy
decisions involves the choice of an appropriate appeal. Some promotional messages uses rational
appeals and are designed to communicate information regarding a product or service and appeal
to the logical aspects of the consumer decision-making process. Other messages appeal to
feelings in attempt to evoke some type of emotional reaction. Three types of appeals are
discussed in the text:
1. Comparative Advertising—comparative advertising refers to the practice of either directly or
indirectly naming one or more competitors in an ad and usually making a comparison on one
or more specific product or service attributes. This form of advertising became a legitimate
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and popular practice after the Federal Trade Commission began advocating its use in 1972
and the networks lifted their ban on comparative advertising.
A number of factors must be considered in using comparative advertising such as consumers’
response to the ad, perceptions of credibility, characteristics of the target audience and the
company’s position in the market. Comparative messages are often used by new brands to
position themselves against established brands or by smaller market share brands to compare
themselves against market leaders. Market leaders, on the other hand, are often hesitant to use
comparison ads as they feel they have little to gain by showing competitor’s products in their
ads. Savin Corp. is an example of a company that used comparative ads effectively to take on
market leader Xerox in the copier market.
2. Fear appeals—are used to create anxiety in the audience and arouse individuals to take action.
Fear can stress negative consequences that may occur if behavior is not altered such as ads
that warn people not to smoke or drink and drive. Fear can also be used through the threat of
social disapproval or rejection that an individual might suffer if s/he does not use a particular
product or service (such as deodorant, mouthwash or dandruff shampoo).
Fear appeals can have facilitating effects by attracting attention and interest to a message and
motivating the receiver to act to resolve the problem presented in the ad. However, high
levels of fear can have inhibiting effects whereby the receiver may emotionally block out the
message by tuning it out, selectively perceiving it or counterarguing against it. The
nonmonotonic relationship between fear and persuasion is shown in Figure 6-5 and should be
discussed. Attention is also given to an alternative approach to the curvilinear explanation of
fear—the protection motivation model.
3. Humor appeals—are among the most popular and best remembered of all advertising
messages. Advertisers use humor for a number of reasons including attracting and holding
consumers’ attention, putting them in a favorable mood, creating affect that may transfer to
the product or service being advertised, and reduce counterarguing by serving as a distractor.
Problems with humorous appeals include the possibility of drawing attention to the ad but at
the expense of message content. Effective humor is also difficult to create and execute. Many
advertisers prefer to use hard-sell rational appeals rather than spending their ad budgets to
entertain consumers.
Top advertising executives’ opinions of the pros and cons of humor are summarized in Figure
6-6 and should be discussed. IMC Perspective 6-4 also discusses an interesting consideration
regarding whether humorous commercials wear out and lose their effectiveness more quickly
than commercials that use a serious appeal.
Professor Notes
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IV.
CHANNEL FACTORS
The final controllable variable of the communications process is the channel, or medium, used to deliver
the message to the target audience. Some general considerations regarding channel factors are presented
here.
A.
Personal versus Nonpersonal Channels—Effective communication also depends on the channel or
medium used to deliver the message to the target audience. While there are a variety of methods
available for communicating a promotional message, they can be classified into two broad
categories—personal and nonpersonal channels. Differences between these two types of influence
channels are discussed.
B.
Effects of Alternative Mass Media— Most promotional efforts such as advertising involve
nonpersonal communication through the mass media. The mass media that advertisers use to
transmit their messages differ in many ways including the number and type of consumers they
reach, their costs, their information processing requirements, and qualitative characteristics.
These factors will be covered in detail in the media chapters. However, at this point it is
important to cover basic differences among alternative mass media including areas such as:
1. Differences in information processing—there are very basic differences among alternative
mass media in terms of the manner and rate at which information is transmitted and can be
processed by the message recipient. Information from the print media is self-paced while
information from the broadcast media of radio and television is externally paced. There are
important implications for advertising via each type of medium.
C.
Effects of Context and Environment—reactions to and interpretation of an advertising message
can be a function of not only message content but also the context or environment in which the ad
appears. A qualitative media effect refers to the positive or negative influence the medium may
contribute to the message. For example an ad seen in a high prestige publication such as Travel &
Leisure or The New Yorker may be perceived differently than one in a low prestige magazine or
paper such as the Star or National Enquirer. Media environments can also be created by the
nature of the television program in which a commercial appears. Consumers may be in a more
receptive mood when watching an upbeat situation comedy versus a news program or
documentary.
D.
Clutter—another aspect of the media environment that is important to advertisers is the problem
of clutter, which refers to all the non-program material that appears in the broadcast environment
including commercials, promotional messages for shows, public service announcements and the
like. Clutter has become a major concern to advertisers as there are too many messages
competing for viewers and listeners attention. An industry study conducted in 2001 found that the
clutter problem is becoming worse as the amount of clutter rose to an average of more than 16
minutes during prime-time and 21 minutes during daytime shows.
Professor Notes
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Teaching Suggestions
The material in this chapter is generally very well received by students as most of them have opinions
regarding whom they consider a good or bad advertising spokesperson or the type of message appeals
they like or dislike. This chapter is designed to build on the material in Chapter 5 by discussing how
decisions regarding source, message and channel factors impact on the various stages of the response
process. We have found that the persuasion matrix is a very effective way of showing how decisions
regarding controllable communication elements interact with the various steps in the response process. It
may be useful to pick a few current examples of advertising campaigns using various spokespersons such
as entertainers or athletes and different types of message appeals (fear, humor, comparisons) and analyze
them using the persuasion matrix.
It is important to note that message appeals are discussed in more detail in Chapters 8 and 9 which cover
creative strategy while specific characteristics of the media and media strategy are discussed in Chapters
10 through 14. These communication elements are introduced in this chapter to provide the student with
an understanding of how decisions regarding these factors fit in with the overall communications process.
This will provide the student a strong foundation for evaluating media and creative decisions when this
material is covered in subsequent chapters.
Answers To Discussion Questions
1. The opening vignette discusses how a number of companies are using athletes with a “bad-boy”
image as endorsers for their athletic shoes. Why do you think companies such as Reebok, And 1, and
Pony use controversial athletes such as Alan Iverson, Latrell Sprewell, and Pete Rose as their
spokesperson? What risks are they taking by using these athletes to endorse their products?
One of the major reasons these companies use athletes with “bad-boy” images as endorsers for their
athletic shoes is that they have street credibility with target audience they are trying to reach. Many
of these companies are trying to reach young, trendsetting urban males who identify with the
rebellious and even scandalous image these athletes represent. Controversial athletes such as Iverson
and Sprewell have street credibility with “ballers,” the term used for players found on the inner-city
basketball courts in major cities such as New York, Los Angeles and Chicago. According to an
article in the Los Angeles Times in February 2003, these players, who are primarily African
Americans teens and young adults buy an estimated 90 percent of high-end shoes costing $100 and
more and start trends that diffuse to the more mainstream youth market in the suburbs. Companies
like Pony are also trying to appeal to a younger, more rebellious and edgy consumer as well.
Campaigns such as this one, which questions why athletes such as Pete Rose and Jack Tatum are not
in the hall of fame in their respective sports, may resonate with this target audience which includes
13 to 34 year old males. Companies such as Pony do not want to be everything to everybody and feel
that they can be more successful by targeting a specific niche that may identify with the image the
company is trying to portray in its ads. These types of campaigns can also generate a great deal of
publicity as they are often discussed in the media.
The primary risk these companies are taking by using these bad-boy athletes as endorsers is that they
may damage their company’s reputation if these individuals get into trouble and they are too closely
identified or associated with them. There is a limit as to the amount of bad behavior that consumers
will accept from these athletes and their effectiveness may be limited if they get into trouble either on
or off the court. Larger companies such as Reebok, Adidas and Nike have to be particularly
concerned by the negative publicity they might receive for paying large amounts of money to athletes
who have negative images or make engage in behaviors that defame the company. Some companies
are willing to accept and deal with the controversy that comes with the use of spokespersons with a
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negative reputation and/or image. However there does come a point where their behavior creates too
many problems and can reflect negatively on the company that uses them. Most endorsement
contracts have escape clauses that allow companies to drop a spokesperson at the first hint of drug
use, sexual scandal or criminal charges. Marketers must also consider the audience they are targeting
with their advertisements. While younger audiences and Generation X-ers may be willing to tolerate
the antics of someone such as Alan Iverson, older consumers are much less likely to respond to
spokespersons who are too controversial.
2. Discuss how marketers can use the persuasion matrix to plan their communication programs. Choose
a print ad or TV commercial and use the persuasion matrix to analyze how it might influence
consumers’ response processes.
The persuasion matrix helps promotional planners see how each controllable element in the
communications process (source, message, channel, and receiver) interacts with the consumers’
response process. Marketers must consider how decisions regarding these controllable elements of
communication will impact the various stages in the response process. For example, the use of a
highly attractive model may attract attention to the ad but have a negative impact on comprehension if
the information presented by the model is not processed.
This assignment gives the student an excellent opportunity to analyze an advertisement in terms of
various communication components and how they interact with the steps of the response process. The
students’ analysis of the ad they choose should address factors such as the type of source used, the
message structure or appeal, the media vehicle where the ad was seen (e.g., the magazine or
newspaper or specific television program) and the target audience they think it was directed towards.
They can then analyze these individual variables in terms of their impact on the various steps of the
response process as shown in the persuasion matrix (Figure 6-1) such as message presentation,
attention, comprehension, yielding, retention and behavior.
3. What are the differences between the source credibility components of expertise and trustworthiness?
Provide an example of an ad or other form of marketing communication that uses these source
characteristics.
The two basic components of source credibility are expertise and trustworthiness. Expertise refers to
the extent to which the source is perceived as having knowledge, skill or experience relevant to the
communication topic. Trustworthiness refers to the honesty, integrity and believability of the source
and the extent to which he or she can be trusted to give an unbiased opinion or present objective
information on the issue. Students should be encouraged to fine an example of an ad that uses these
source characteristics. Many ads for medical or oral care products use expert sources such as doctors
and dentists to endorse products. Athletes also are examples of expert sources when they are
endorsing a product or service related to their sport. For example, racecar drivers often endorse
automotive products while golfers and tennis players endorse equipment related to their respective
sports. Expertise is used in other ways in marketing communications such as getting an endorsement
or recommendation for a product or service from an individual expert or even a well respected media
source such as an industry publication. Trustworthiness is also very important and advertisers usually
attempt to find spokespersons with a trustworthy image and who are not endorsing too many
products. Advertisers can also use techniques such as hidden-cameras or unsolicited testimonial as a
way of increasing the receivers’ perceptions of trustworthiness of the source. Students should be
asked to bring in an example of advertisements that use an expert source and one who is used based
on his/her level of trustworthiness.
4. Discuss why companies use their founder, president, or CEO as an advertising spokesperson. Discuss
the pros and cons of this practice for both major corporations and smaller companies, such as a local
retailer.
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There are several reasons why both major corporations and smaller companies use their founder,
president, or CEO as an advertising spokesperson. Some companies feel that the use of a corporate
leader as an advertising spokesperson is a way of expressing the company’s commitment to the
customer with respect to areas such as quality and customer service. The use of an owner or CEO of a
company is seen as a way of giving a company a favorable image or identify among consumers. In
some cases, a corporate leader may be very well known and respected and his or her popularity and/or
favorable reputation may help enhance the image of the company. Some corporate leaders also have a
very likeable personality, which helps make them effective as advertising and advertising
spokesperson. For example, Dave Thomas was a very effective spokesperson for Wendy’s for many
years because he was perceived as being very unpretentious, unassuming, and straightforward and
had a down-home, folksy appeal and image. Many smaller companies such as local retailers often use
their owners or founders in their ads because their budgets are too small to hire professional actors or
announcers. There is also the ego factor, as many corporate leaders appear in their ads because they
feel they are well-suited to deliver the company’s advertising message and/or they want to be seen or
heard in the ads. It may be very easy for an advertising agency to sell a corporate leader on an
advertising campaign in which s/he will be the advertising spokesperson.
There are a number of potential problems associated with the use of a corporate leader as an
advertising spokesperson. Many business leaders are not very good in front of a camera and do not
make effective advertising spokespeople. They may not exude credibility or possess the type of
image needed to be a good spokesperson for their company. Thus, the company may be spending
money on advertising that is ineffective or may even be perceived very negatively by consumers.
Another problem with using a business leader as a spokesperson is that the image of the company
may be tied too closely to that person and may create problems if this individual leaves the company
or encounters some negative publicity. For example, Victor Kiam was the spokesperson for
Remington Products for many years with his well-known pitch, “I liked the razor so much I bought
the company.” However, his credibility was damaged when members of the New England Patriot’s
professional football team that he owned at the time were charged with sexual harassment of a female
reporter in the locker room. Kiam was quoted as calling the reporter a “classic bitch” and joking
about the incident when speaking at a sports banquet. Kiam and the team were sued for harassment
and civil rights violations and the National Organization for Women called for a boycott of his
company.
5. Discuss the ethics of celebrities endorsing products in foreign countries but not in the United States to
protect their image. Do you think celebrities hurt their reputations by doing endorsements? Why or
why not?
As discussed in Global Perspective 6-1, many American celebrities who do not appear in ads in the
U.S. make huge sums of money endorsing products and serving as advertising spokespeople in
foreign countries such as Japan. These celebrities will not endorse products in the U.S. because they
think that it is “selling out” and may be damaging to their image. However, by appearing in ads only
in foreign countries they avoid tarnishing their image at home. They take the perspective that they
aren’t really selling out if nobody knows what they’re up to. There really isn’t anything unethical
about celebrities endorsing products in foreign countries. However one could argue that it is unethical
for celebrities to act as though they are above endorsing products when they are indeed doing so
abroad. The fact that many celebrities have nondisclosure clauses in their contracts, specifying that
the ads they do cannot be shown—or sometimes even discussed—outside of the country for which
they are intended suggests that they are taking steps to mislead the public in the U.S. about their
commercial endeavors. However, it is getting more difficult for celebrities keep their endorsements
in foreign countries a secret and to keep people back home from seeing the commercials they do in
places like Japan. These foreign commercials are now being shown on web sites originating in Japan
as well as Canada and the U.S. Also, the ABC News Show Primetime aired a segment in January
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2003, called “Celebrity Foreign” that discusses celebrities endorsing products in Japan but not the
U.S. Thus public is becoming much more aware of how celebrities endorse products and appear in
commercials in foreign countries.
The question as to whether celebrities hurt their reputations by doing endorsements is an interesting
one. Some celebrities do not endorse products or appear in ads because this is viewed as a cash-in,
cash-out capitalistic maneuver. Endorsing products is not viewed as a creative endeavor because the
celebrity is not acting in these commercials, they are endorsing. Obviously the general public knows
that celebrities are paid large sums of money to endorse products and this may undermine their image
and credibility. However, celebrities may also be concerned with the impact endorsements have on
their image in the entertainment community as well. An actor or actress who appears in commercials
may lose some of their credibility and may end up damaging their artistic appeal. This may be
particularly critical to those who appear in movies. For example, Cher damaged her credibility as a
serious actress by appearing in too many infomercials. On the other hand one might argue that
cashing in on celebrity status is pretty much expected and does not tarnish the image of those who do
so. Perhaps the key issue is not whether celebrities endorse products or companies but rather how
frequently they do so. Celebrities who endorse too many products may indeed become perceived
more as spokespersons than quality actors or actresses.
6. IMC Perspective 6-2 discusses Dell Computer’s use of the Steven “The Dell Dude” as its advertising
spokesperson. Discuss why Steven was such an effective spokesperson for Dell. Why do you think
the company has decided to phase him out of its advertising?
Steven “The Dell Dude” was a very popular advertising spokesperson for Dell Computer for several
years as he had a very easy going personality that appealed to a variety of consumers. Steven was
played by Benjamin Curtis, a 21 year old student at New York University. Younger consumers could
easily identify with his laid back style and his famous line “Dude, you’re gettin’ a Dell” became part
of the pop-culture vernacular. He was very popular with young teenage girls who found him very
cute and liked his smile and pleasant personality. Steven was also very popular with older consumers
as they liked his Eddie Haskell-like charm. The decision to phase Steven out was based in part on the
fact that the company was becoming too identified with him. The Steven commercials were
originally designed to help Dell boost its awareness and increase its appeal among home computer
users. However, Dell gets most of its business by selling personal computers and servers to business
and government customers. Steven’s laid back image was not appropriate for business customers and
the company did not want its image to become too identified with him. Dell’s decision to replace
“The Dell Dude” in its ads turned out to be a good one as Curtis was arrested in New York City in
February 2003 on changes of purchasing marijuana from an undercover policeman. Ironically, the
arrest occurred just days after his contract to appear as Steven in the Dell commercials expired. Thus
Dell avoided a potentially embarrassing public relations problem.
7. Find a celebrity who is currently appearing in ads for a particular company or brand and use
McCracken’s meaning transfer model (shown in Figure 6-3) to analyze the use of the celebrity as a
spokesperson.
McCracken’s meaning transfer model provides a very interesting perspective on celebrity
endorsements. According to this model, a celebrity’s effectiveness as an endorser depends on the
culturally acquired meaning s/he brings to the endorsement process. Celebrities acquire these
meanings from the roles they assume in their careers as entertainers, athletes, politicians and other
areas. They then bring these meanings into the advertisements in which they appear and transfer
them to the product or service they are endorsing. Students should be asked to find a celebrity who is
currently endorsing a product, service or company and analyze his or her endorsement effectiveness
in terms of McCracken’s model. They should discuss how the celebrity acquired his or her meaning
and whether it transfers well to the company or brand they are endorsing. For example, actor Paul
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Hogan was a spokesperson for the Subaru Outback SUV when it was introduced to the U.S. market a
few years ago. Hogan acquired his cultural meaning primarily from the role he played in the
Crocodile Dundee movies as a rugged, tough guy from the Australian Outback (Stage 1 of the model).
He was an excellent choice as a spokesperson for the Outback as Subaru wanted to position the new
vehicle as a vehicle that combines rough-terrain driving capability with the ride and comfort of a
passenger car and the use of Hogan helps create this image. Subaru’s use of Hogan provides a clever
play off of the Outback name as well as an opportunity to transfer Hogan’s tough and rugged image to
the vehicle (Stage 2 of the model). Consumers may choose the Outback since they may be looking for
these attributes when they purchase a new car, particularly if they internalize the image of the vehicle
as durable and rugged (Stage 3 of the model).
8. What is meant by a one-sided versus two-sided message? Discuss some of the reasons marketers may
or may not want to use a two-sided message.
A one-sided message mentions only positive attributes or benefits associated with a product or service
or a particular issues whereas a two-sided message presents both favorable and unfavorable
information and arguments. The advantages of using a two-sided versus one-sided advertising
message are that it may enhance perceptions of an advertiser’s credibility. Consumers often know
that there are opposing arguments or viewpoints on an issue and an advertiser may be perceived as
less biased and more objective if a two-sided message is used. One-sided messages are most often
used since a company may only want to mention positive attributes, benefits or features or present
only favorable arguments about its product or service. Many marketers feel it is too risky to say
anything negative about their own company or brands. One-sided messages are most effective when
the target audience already holds a favorable position toward the topic and will not hear opposing
arguments. They may also work better with less educated audiences. For those individuals with an
opposing viewpoint or a better-educated audience, a two-sided message may be seen as less biased
and more credible and thus more effective.
9. Discuss the pros and cons of using a comparative advertising message. Find an example of a current
campaign where a marketer is using a comparative ad and evaluate the decision to do so.
There are several advantages to using a comparative advertising message. A comparative ad may be a
way of gaining attention, particularly when a new or lesser-known brand compares itself to a wellknown brand or market leader. Comparative ads also allow a company to directly communicate the
features, attributes, benefits, and advantages of its product or service relative to those of its
competitor(s). For a new brand, comparative advertising provides a way of positioning the product in
the evoked set of brands the consumer might consider. Potential problems with comparative
advertising are that consumers may see these ads as less believable and more offensive than
noncomparative messages. Users of the attacked brand may be particularly skeptical about the
credibility of comparative claims. There is also the possibility that the use of a comparative message
may focus more attention on the competitor’s brand and benefit them more than the sponsoring brand.
The use of comparative messages has become a very popular type of advertising strategy and there
are numerous examples that can be analyzed. Students should be asked to find an example of a
company that is currently using a comparative ad and evaluate the logic of this strategy.
10. Evaluate the pros and cons of using humor as the basis for an advertising campaign. Find an example
of an advertising campaign that supports your arguments for and against the use of humor.
There are a number of arguments that can be made for the use of humor as the basis of an advertising
campaign. Humorous messages are effective at attracting and holding consumers attention and thus
are an effective way to break through the advertising clutter. They also can put consumers in a
positive mood which results in their liking of the ad and transferring this positive affect to the product
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or service. It also has been argued that humor can distract the receiver and thus reduce the level of
counterarguing against the message.
There are a number of arguments against the use of humor in advertising. Critics note that humor
may attract attention to the ad but may reduce comprehension as it distracts attention away from the
information being presented. Effective humor may be difficult to produce and the humor used in an
ad may be too subtle for most consumers to understand. It has also been argued that humorous
commercials wear out faster as once consumers have seen a humorous message there is little more to
gain by attending to the ad. Thus consumers stop paying attention to them and may even become
annoyed at seeing the ad over and over. Figure 6-6 summarizes the results of a study which surveyed
agency research and creative directors regarding the value of using humorous advertising messages.
11. What is meant by a qualitative media effect? Choose a specific magazine and discuss the nature of the
media environment in that publication.
A qualitative media effect refers to the positive or negative influence a media vehicle has on an
advertising message as a function of its quality, image, prestige and the reception environment it
creates. Media vehicles such as magazines and television programs have qualitative effects since the
environment they create may have an impact on readers’ or viewers’ mood states and the way they
might process and respond to an advertisement. Students should be encouraged to choose a specific
magazine and analyze the media environment created by that publication. A publication such as
Cosmo or Vogue will be very different from Good Housekeeping or McCall’s in terms of layout,
articles, photographs, and the various products and services that are advertised. Students should be
asked to describe these differences and how they might influence the way readers might respond
differently to ads in these publications.
Additional Discussion Questions (not in text)
12. Former NBA basketball star Michael Jordan makes an estimated $60 million a year in endorsement
deals event though he is retired and no longer playing. Choose one of the companies or brands for
which Jordan is the spokesperson and discuss whether he is still effective as an endorser. How long
do you think companies will continue to pay Jordan large sums of money to endorse their products
and services?
Michael Jordan’s has endorsement deals with a number of companies including Nike, Rayovac Corp.,
Oakley, General Mills, and Quaker Oats Co (now owned by PepsiCo) , which makes Gatorade.
Jordan retired from professional basketball for a third time in 2003 at the age of 40 and it is likely that
this time his retirement will be permanent. However, even in retirement Jordan remains one of the
most well known athletes in the history of sports. He was voted ESPN’s athlete of the Century by a
panel of sports experts and many advertising experts consider him the Commercial Endorser of the
Century as well. As noted in IMC Perspective 6-3, Jordan has the highest Q score among all active
and retired athletes. In addition to his athletic accomplishments, there are a number of reasons Jordan
is effective as an endorser. He has a very good-natured personality and is seen as very trustworthy
from his laid-back delivery style. He has also been very careful to associate himself with quality
companies and brands.
In March 2000 Jordan announced that he wanted to phase himself out just being a spokesperson and
become more active with the companies whose products and services he endorses. While Jordan is
moving in a new direction, he will still honor his endorsement deals with the companies mentioned
above, many of which have a number of years to go. Students should be asked to choose one of the
companies or brands Jordan is endorsing and analyze whether he is still effective as an endorser. It is
likely that Jordan’s tremendous popularity and favorable image will allow him to be effective as an
endorser for many years. One of the best comparisons may be with legendary golfer Arnold Palmer
who continues to be a very popular endorser and advertising spokesperson even though he has not
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won a golf tournament in nearly 20 years. Jordan is likely to have the same popularity as Palmer and
will be a very popular endorser for the next several decades.
13. Most marketers choose an advertising spokesperson or source with high credibility. Discuss some
reasons why it may be unnecessary, or even detrimental, to use a source who is high in credibility.
There are some situations where high source credibility may not be necessary and may even be a
liability. A high credibility source is likely to be most effective when message recipients are opposed
to the position advocated in the message as the credible communicator will inhibit counterarguing and
source derogation. However, a high-credibility source may not be needed when the audience has a
neutral position and may even be less effective than a moderately credible source when the receiver’s
initial attitude is favorable. The reason for this is that when a low credibility source is used the
message recipients are encouraged to review personal thoughts that are supportive of their favorable
position rather than attributing their feelings to the highly credible communicator. Studies have also
shown that high and low-credibility sources are equally effective when they are arguing for a position
opposing their own best interest.
Another reason why a low-credibility source may be as effective as a high-credibility source is
because of the sleeper-effect phenomenon. While the immediate impact of a persuasive message may
be inhibited because of its association with a low-credibility source, the association of the message
with the source diminishes over time and the receiver’s attention focuses on the information in the
message. Thus the positive effects of using a high-credibility source will diminish over time as will
the initial negative impact of using a low-credibility source.
14. Evaluate the argument that humorous messages may wear out faster than other types of advertising
appeals. Do you agree or disagree with this position?
Commercial wearout refers to the tendency of a message to lose its effectiveness when it is seen
repeatedly. While wearout is a potential problem for any type of commercial, some advertising
experts argue that humorous ads may wear out faster because once the consumer sees a funny spot a
few times and gets the joke, the ad becomes boring. Wearout can occur because of inattention or
annoyance at seeing an ad so many times. Critics argue that humorous commercials wearout faster
because consumers stop paying attention to them and may become annoyed at seeing the ad over and
over. Arguments can be made, however, as to why humorous ads will not wearout any faster than
other types of commercials and may even wearout more slowly. Many humorous spots are very
entertaining and TV viewers enjoy watching them over and over (the basic “I love that commercial”
idea). It is probably incorrect to argue that humorous ads wearout any faster than other types of
commercials. The rate of wearout probably depends on the individual commercial and consumers’
reactions to it.
15. Discuss the pros and cons of using an open-ended message that does not draw specific conclusions
versus a closed-ended message that does make explicit conclusions for the message recipient.
Open-ended messages that do not draw specific conclusions may be more effective than close-ended
messages that do draw specific conclusions in certain situations. Research shows that more highly
educated people prefer to draw their own conclusions and may be annoyed at attempts to explain the
obvious or draw an inference for them. For highly personal or ego-involving issues, message
recipients may want to make up their own minds and resent any attempts by the communicator to
draw a conclusion.
In general, messages with explicit conclusions are more easily understood. It may be necessary to
state a conclusion for a less educated audience as they may not draw any conclusion or make an
incorrect inference from the message. Even if the audience is highly educated, it may be important to
state a conclusion if their knowledge level or involvement in a particular area is low. Drawing a
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conclusion in the message is a way of insuring that the target audience gets the point the marketer
intended.
16. Assume that you have been asked to consult for a government agency that wants to use a fear appeal
message to encourage college students not to drink and drive. Explain how fear appeals might affect
persuasion and what factors should be taken into consideration in developing the ads.
Fear can affect persuasion in both a positive and negative manner. An anti-drinking and driving
message with a low level of fear can have facilitating effects if it attracts the attention and interest of
college students and motivates them to consider how they might try to resolve the threat. This
suggests that a mild fear appeal may be effective in changing attitudes and behavior of college
students as it may get them to think about the negative consequences involved and think about how
they might avoid them. Fear appeals can also have a negative or inhibiting effect and a message that
uses too much fear may cause students to tune it out, perceive it selectively, counterargue against it or
discount the likelihood of the negative consequences happening to them. One potential problem with
anti-drinking and driving messages targeted at college students is that young people tend to perceive
themselves as invulnerable and thus they may discount any negative outcomes shown in the message
as unlikely to occur to them.
A number of factors should be taken into consideration in developing a fear appeal message for the
college audience. As noted above, college students are a market segment that may require special
consideration when using a fear appeal message. This audience may be likely to discount fear appeal
messages that are too strong or seen as too unrealistic. The credibility of the source used in the
message may be very important and consideration might be given to using a source with whom this
group identifies and might not easily derogate. Research on fear appeals has shown that they are more
effective among nonusers of a product than users. Thus it may be more effective to target fear appeals
at those students who are not heavy drinkers and encourage them to take responsibility for those
students who do drink and drive. The designated driver program and responsible drinking campaigns
of liquor and beer companies often do this.
IMC Exercise
Find an example of three current advertising campaigns that are using at least one of the following source
or message factors:

a celebrity spokesperson

a corporate leader such as the president, founder or CEO as an advertising spokesperson

a comparative advertising message

a refutational appeal message

a fear appeal message

a humorous appeal message
Analyze the advertisers’ use of this particular source or message factor. Why do you think they chose to
use this particular source or type of message? Are the spokespersons and/or messages appropriate or
inappropriate for this particular brand of product or service? How might the use of this type of source or
message impact the way consumers in the target audience respond to the advertising campaign?
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