University of Virginia Center for Politics
The Electoral College and Presidential Campaigns:
Working the System
Purpose:
This lesson may be used on its own or as a continuation of the YLI lesson The Controversial
History of the Electoral College. Students are required to apply their knowledge of elections and
the Electoral College system to use recent information on voter trends to examine the outcomes of
the 2000 elections and predict the 2004 election using Sabato’s Crystal Ball website.
Objectives:
1. Students will identify the pros and cons of the Electoral College system.
2. Students will understand that voting trends in past elections affect where and how candidates
campaign in upcoming elections.
3. Students will be able to interpret maps of the 2004 Election, and make inferences about the
outcome of the 2004 Presidential Election from maps and charts based on given sets of data on
the Presidential Elections between 1972 and 2000.
Key Words:
Elector
Electoral College
Battleground state
slate/platform
indirect democracy
GOP
plurality
campaign manager
swing state
Materials:
1. Student copies, “The Electoral College: Pros and Cons article.
2. Transparency, Challenge! Number of Electoral Votes per State.
3. Computer lab or student copies, Interactive Electoral Map.
(www.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/2004/president/electoratemap.php)
4. Student copies, Campaign Management Strategy: Election 2004 and Beyond.
5. Student copies or computer lab, 1972-2000 Presidential Election State Voting Trends, located
at: http://www.thegreenpapers.com/G04/President-1972-2000.phtml
6. Transparency of maps: Historical Perspectives on Presidential Electoral Votes, and
Presidential Election 2004: August Predictions.
Procedure:
1. Motivational Activity: Ask students if they have seen or heard any ads for the Presidential
candidates on the TV or radio. Record the name of the candidates and number of ads on the
board. (In some states students may not have been exposed to any ads.) Ask students to
theorize what this means about the importance of their state in the upcoming election.
 Is the number of ads the same for all states? Why or why not?
 What does this tell us about the campaign strategies of the candidates?
 Why do the candidates spend more time advertising in some states and not in others?
2. Hand out copies of The Electoral College: Pros and Cons article, giving students 5-10 minutes
to read the excerpts. Ask students to study the electoral map.
 What is the advantage that small states have in the current system that would make
those states not want to change it?
 Describe the arguments for and against the Electoral College system? Which
arguments seem the strongest? Weakest?
 How are electoral votes allocated to a state? How might larger states seemingly
benefit from this allocation, in terms of a candidates campaign choices?
Hint: A second version of this reading is provided for lower ability readers.
3. Conduct a brief review of the main ideas from the previous lesson, When the Popular Vote
Wasn’t Good Enough by using the Challenge! Worksheet. Ask the whole class to repeat
answers to the following questions:
 How many total votes are there in the Electoral College?
(538: 438 from the House, 100 from the Senate)




How many votes does a president need from the Electoral College in order to win the
election? (A majority: 270 votes)
Which states would you choose to visit in order to win a clear majority of electoral votes?
Which states might be “battleground” states? Why?
What are some problems facing candidates as they decide which states to campaign heavily in?
4. Hand out copies of the map titled Historical Perspective on Presidential Votes. Have students
review it and discuss the following questions. This information can also be accessed on-line at
www.greenpapers.com/G04/President-1972-2000.phtml
 What does the “GOP” represent?
(The “Grand Old Party” or the Republicans)
For more information, see: History of the GOP

What states have voted for the GOP candidate consistently since 1988?
(The ‘blue’ states: VA, NC, SC, AL, AK, MS, TX, OK, KS, NE SD, ND, WY, UT, ID.)

What states have been committed to Democratic candidates since 1988?
(States in yellow won Republican in 1988 and states in blue won Republican in all four
elections listed on this map. The states left that have NOT won Republican since 1988 are red,
green, and white: AZ, CO, MT, GA, FL, WA, OR, HI, MN, IA, WI, WV, NY, DC, RI, MA.)

How could this information be useful to a candidate running for office?
(Maps such as this one tell a candidate where and how he or she should campaign in order to
maximize the number of votes received in the election.)

Can you define the term indirect democracy and explain how it relates to the Electoral
College?
(In U.S. Elections, voters place their preference for a candidate in the general election, which
is considered “direct democracy.” The U.S. system of elections is an “indirect democracy”
because popular votes do not literally elect a president – Electoral College votes do, but the
electors cast votes based (usually) upon how the popular votes “tell” them to vote. In this way,
the election describes an indirect democracy.)
5. Have students access the Crystal Ball website, www.centerforpolitics.org/crystalball/. Ask
students to respond to the following questions:
 What information is this map providing?
 Which states appear to be battleground states in the upcoming election? Which are
swing states?


According to the map, what are the fewest number of states that George W. Bush needs
to win in order to secure a victory? Which states?
According to the map, can John Kerry win the presidential election? If yes, how many
of the battleground states does he need to win in order to be elected? Which of those
states would be important to winning the Electoral College?
Ask the students to click on one of the swing states and read the current election analysis for
this state.
 How could a candidate use this information to plan their campaign strategies?
6. Activity: Campaign Management. Hand out the worksheet, Campaign Management Strategy.
 Directions: Ask students to assume the role of campaign manager for a Democratic or
Republican presidential candidate. The campaign manager’s job is to advise the
candidate on how and where he should spend his time between now and Election Day.
Managers should explain how the map of historical perspectives on Electoral College
votes will help them in advising their candidate. Managers may also give consideration
to demographics and how they relate to your candidate’s policies and initiatives
 Instruct students to use the electoral maps and charts on recent voter trends in
presidential elections to complete the activities on the worksheet.
 Pair students up in campaign committees of 2-3 to work on the strategy.
NOTE: This activity can be completed in the computer lab or by using the handouts.
7. Have students share their advice for a campaign blitz. Follow candidates on the campaign trail
and compare student suggestions regarding where candidates should place their energy and
where candidates actually make appearances. Students may also make predictions about how
often we will see the candidates in your state.
8. Assessment. Ask the students to reflect on the importance of the electoral college on
campaign planning by asking them to respond to the following:




How does the Electoral College affect the campaign strategies of the Presidential
candidates?
How do past elections influence campaign decisions in the 2004 election?
What does this mean for voters in battleground and swing states?
What does this mean for voters in other states?
To assess their learning students can complete any of the following activities:
 Write an essay that addresses each of the questions.
 Create a political cartoon illustrating the questions.
 Write a poem or song that demonstrates an understanding of the questions.
 Create a thirty-second PSA that addresses the influence of electoral votes on the
campaign process.
Extension Activity:
1.The Third Party Influence
Background: For many, third parties are overlooked as an influential aspect of politics. However,
history has proven that third parties can affect the outcome of elections both positively and negatively.
On one hand, third parties can have a positive influence because the issues that they run on their platforms
can spur members of the two major parties to take on the issues that the third party brings up.
Unfortunately, this typically means that one or both of the major parties swallow up the issues of the third
party. Third parties can also have a negative influence, because if the candidate running for a third party
gains a considerable amount of popular votes during an election, he (she) is taking votes away from
candidates of the two major parties.
Questions to consider:
1. Historically, which third parties and third party candidates maintained successful campaigns in
that either a) a candidate was elected President, or b) the issues of the party spurred candidates of
the other two parties into action?
2. Were Pat Buchanan and Ralph Nader influential in the 2000 Presidential Election?
3. Ralph Nader has declared candidacy in the 2004 Election. What issues will he take up? How can
he possibly affect the general election between John Kerry and George Bush?
4. Can Ralph Nader affect the outcome of the general election in 2004? How?
2. Have students access: www.archives.gov/federal_register/electoral_college/calculator.html
Direct the students to use the site to change the electoral votes based on the strategies suggested in
the lesson. Ask them to reflect on the outcome of their strategy.
 What is the result of your campaign blitz on the Electoral College?
Campaign Management Strategy: Election 2004 and Beyond
Directions: Fill in the blanks on the following worksheet, using the maps and charts you have been given to answer
the questions.
A.
Interpreting Maps:
1. How many possible electoral votes are there? __________
2. How many electoral votes does a candidate need in order to win a presidential election? __________
3. Name the three states with the greatest number of electoral votes. ____________________________
4. Name the three states with the least number of electoral votes. ______________________________
5. What is the fewest number of states necessary to win an election? __________
6. How many electoral votes does Illinois (IL) have? __________
7. How many senators does Hawaii (HI) have? __________
8. How many members of the House of Representatives does Florida (FL) have? __________
9. How many electoral votes does your state have? __________
 How many senators does your state have? __________
 How many members of the House of Representatives does your state have? _________
10. How many electoral votes does Washington, D.C. have? __________
 How many senators does Washington, D.C. have? __________
 How many members of the House of Representatives does Washington, D.C. have? ________
 Why is this strange? What makes Washington, D.C. a special case? _____________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. If you were a campaign manager, where would you advise your candidate to go – California (CA), or
Virginia (VA)? Why?
B.
Situational Campaign Management Strategies:
Use the chart on voter trends in the last six elections to analyze the following situation.
 Familiarize yourself with the KEY on the chart.
 Read the headings and titles along the axes of the chart.
 Consider the questions you have already answered, and the maps you have studied when crafting your
strategy.
1. What does the “D” and “d” mean? The “R” and “r”? Each means something different.
2. Look at the far-left column. What do the terms, “Strongly Republican/Democrat,” “Leaning
Republican/Democrat,” and “Truly Competitive” mean for each state?
3. Using the KEY, answer the following questions about elections from 1972 to 2000. Abbreviations are
acceptable.
a) List the states that have been predominately Republican over the last eight elections.
b) List the states that have been predominately Democratic over the last eight elections.
c) List the states that have been “competitive” or “toss-ups” over the last eight elections.
d) Why would the states considered “leaning” be significant to a candidate who is campaigning for extra
votes?
4. Consider the following Electoral College results from past elections.
Year of Election
Winning Party By State
Texas
Missouri
Republican
Republican
1988 Election
Republican
Democrat
1992 Election
Republican
Democrat
1996 Election
Republican
Republican
2000 Election
a) Referring to the chart above: If you were a Democratic candidate running for President, where would
you be more likely to campaign, Texas or Missouri? Why?
b) Referring to the chart above: If you were a Republican candidate running, where would you be more
likely to go? In other words, how do you maximize your total number of popular votes? Why?
c) Which region of the country has the most electoral votes? The fewest? How do you think this
influences the election?
5. Using the map below and the information on voting trends, make generalizations about regional trends
in the United States.
There are about eight different regions
in the U.S. They are: Northeast, East,
Southeast, South, Southwest, West,
Northwest, Midwest and Central.
Geographical Regions of the U.S.
a) According to the numbers, which regions tend to vote Democratic?
b) According to the numbers, which regions tend to vote Republican?
c) According to the numbers, which regions tend to be “toss-ups”?
d) If you were the incumbent President (a Republican), how would you use this information when
campaigning in 2004? Which regions would you try to focus on? Why?
e) If you were the challenging candidate for the Presidency (a Democrat), how would you use this
information in 2004? Which regions would you try to focus on? Why?
5. It is four weeks until the general election. Your campaign committee has to plan a campaign blitz
that will maximize your electoral votes in the election. As a group, decide how your candidate
will spend that four weeks in order to win the election. Be prepared to share your strategy with the
class.
Candidate:______________________________

Which states will your candidate visit? Why?

Which states will your candidate avoid? Why?
 If your candidate is successful, how many electoral votes will this campaign blitz net
for your candidate?

Which of those states would have the highest priority? Why?
USE THE INTERACTIVE MAP TO DETERMINE VARIOUS OUTCOMES OF THE 2004
ELECTION….
1972-2000 Presidential Election State Voting Trends
How often has a state voted for the Democratic Candidate (1972-2000)?
How often has a state voted for the Republican Candidate (1972-2000)?
How often has a state voted for the winning Candidate (1972-2000)?
Key:
D
State went Democrat, Democrats won Presidency
d State went Democrat, Republicans won Presidency
R State went Republican, Republicans won Presidency
r State went Republican, Democrats won Presidency
SORTED BY
State
(sort)
Voted
Dems
(sort)
Voted
GOP
(sort)
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
Voted
NIXON CARTER REAGAN REAGAN BUSH CLINTON CLINTON BUSH
for
McGovern
Ford
Carter
Mondale Dukakis
Bush
Dole
Gore
Winner
Alabama
Strongly
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
R
r
r
R
Alaska
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Arizona
Moderately
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
r
D
R
Arkansas
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
California
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Colorado
Moderately
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
r
R
Connecticut
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Delaware
Leaning
Democrat
50.0%
50.0%
87.5%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
d
District of
Columbia
Strongly
Democratic
100.0%
0.0%
37.5%
d
D
d
d
d
D
D
d
Florida
Moderately
Republican
25.0%
75.0%
87.5%
R
D
R
R
R
r
D
R
Georgia
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
D
d
R
R
D
r
R
Hawaii
Strongly
Democratic
75.0%
25.0%
62.5%
R
D
d
R
d
D
D
d
Idaho
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Strongly
Republican
Illinois
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Indiana
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Iowa
Leaning
Democrat
50.0%
50.0%
62.5%
R
r
R
R
d
D
D
d
Kansas
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Kentucky
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
Louisiana
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
Maine
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Maryland
Leaning
Democrat
62.5%
37.5%
75.0%
R
D
d
R
R
D
D
d
Massachusetts
Strongly
Democratic
75.0%
25.0%
62.5%
d
D
R
R
d
D
D
d
Michigan
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Minnesota
Strongly
Democratic
87.5%
12.5%
50.0%
R
D
d
d
d
D
D
d
Mississippi
Strongly
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
R
r
r
R
Missouri
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
Montana
Moderately
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
r
R
Nebraska
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Nevada
Moderately
Republican
25.0%
75.0%
87.5%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
R
New Hampshire
Moderately
Republican
25.0%
75.0%
87.5%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
R
New Jersey
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
New Mexico
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
New York
Leaning
Democrat
62.5%
37.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
d
D
D
d
North Carolina
Strongly
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
R
r
r
R
North Dakota
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Ohio
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
Oklahoma
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Oregon
Leaning
Democrat
50.0%
50.0%
62.5%
R
r
R
R
d
D
D
d
Pennsylvania
Leaning
Democrat
50.0%
50.0%
87.5%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
d
Rhode Island
Strongly
Democratic
75.0%
25.0%
62.5%
R
D
d
R
d
D
D
d
South Carolina
Strongly
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
R
r
r
R
South Dakota
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Tennessee
Truely
Competitive
37.5%
62.5% 100.0%
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
Texas
Strongly
Republican
12.5%
87.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
R
r
r
R
Utah
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Vermont
Leaning
Democrat
37.5%
62.5%
75.0%
R
r
R
R
R
D
D
d
Virginia
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
50.0%
50.0%
62.5%
R
r
R
R
d
D
D
d
West Virginia
Truely
Competitive
62.5%
37.5%
75.0%
R
D
d
R
d
D
D
R
Wisconsin
Leaning
Democrat
62.5%
37.5%
75.0%
R
D
R
R
d
D
D
d
Wyoming
Strongly
Republican
0.0%
100.0% 62.5%
R
r
R
R
R
r
r
R
Washington
Leaning
Democrat
Presidential Election 2004: August Predictions
CHALLENGE!
NUMBER OF ELECTORAL VOTES PER STATE
One interesting fact about the Electoral College is that states have different numbers of electors. States
have the same number of electors as they have Senators and Representatives. This means that states with
larger populations have more electors and more votes in the Electoral College.
Directions: With your partner, study the electoral map from the perspective of a presidential candidate.
You want to win the election, and you are campaigning across the United States.
1) What is the FEWEST number of states you would have to win in order to
win a clear majority of electoral votes?
2) Which states did you choose? Why?
Which states did you choose to leave out? Why?
3) Which states might be “battleground” states? Why?
4) What is one problem that presidential candidates might face when deciding
which states to campaign the most in? (Where should they spend the money?)
Form A
The Electoral College, Pro and Con
The Electoral College mechanism has not lacked for critics over the years. The basic objection is that the
system clearly has the potential to frustrate the popular will in the selection of a president and a vice
president. Because of the aggregation of electoral votes by state, it is possible that a candidate might win
the most popular votes but lose in the Electoral College voting. This happened in 1824 (when the election
was thrown into the House), in 1876 (when there were disputed electors from several states), and in 1888.
The winner-take-all system literally means that the candidate team that wins most of the popular votes
(the plurality vote winner) in a particular state gets all of the electoral votes in that state, and the loser gets
none, even if the loss is by a slim popular-vote margin. Thus a candidate who fails to carry a particular
state receives not a single electoral vote in that state for the popular votes received. Since presidential
elections are won by electoral-not popular-votes, it is the electoral vote tally that election-night viewers
watch for and that tells the tale.
Another problem cited by critics is the possibility of "faithless electors" who defect from the candidate to
whom they are pledged. Most recently, in 1976, a Republican elector in the state of Washington cast his
vote for Ronald Reagan instead of Gerald Ford, the Republican presidential candidate. Earlier, in 1972, a
Republican elector in Virginia deserted Nixon to vote for the Libertarian party candidate. And in 1968,
Nixon lost another Virginia elector, who bolted to George Wallace.
The main danger of faithless electors is that the candidate who wins the popular vote could wind up one
or two votes short of a majority in the Electoral College and could lose the election on a technicality. This
prospect becomes more probable when there are third-party or independent candidates who could
negotiate with electors before they vote.
Many see the apportioning of the Electoral College votes by states as a basic flaw, because it gives each
of the smaller states at least three electoral votes, even though on a straight population basis some might
be entitled to only one or two.
Critics of the system also argue that the possibility that an election could be thrown into the House of
Representatives is undemocratic. In such a case each state has a single vote, which gives the sparsely
populated or small states equal weight with more populous states such as California or New York. The
two occasions when it occurred (1800 and 1824) were marked by charges of "deals" and "corrupt
bargains." In any event, giving each state one vote in the House of Representatives regardless of the
number of people represented is not consistent with the widely accepted concept of one-person-one-vote.
Also, one vote per state in the House of Representatives may not necessarily result in a choice that
replicates the electoral vote winner in that state in November.
Those who argue in favor of retaining the present system state that there is too much uncertainty over
whether any other method would be an improvement. They point out that many of the complaints about
the Electoral College apply just as well to the Senate and, to some extent, to the House. They fear that
reform could lead to the dismantling of the federal system.
Another argument made by defenders of the Electoral College is that the present method serves American
democracy well by fostering a two-party system and thwarting the rise of splinter parties such as those
that have plagued many European democracies. The winner-take-all system means that minor parties get
few electoral votes and that a president who is the choice of the nation as a whole emerges. In the present
system, splinter groups could not easily throw an election into the House. Supporters feel strongly that if
the electors fail to agree on a majority president, it is in keeping with the federal system that the House of
Representatives, voting as states, makes the selection.
Supporters also argue that the Electoral College system democratically reflects population centers by
giving urban areas electoral power; that is where the most votes are. Thus together, urban states come
close to marshaling the requisite number of electoral votes to elect a president.
A final argument is that for the most part, the Electoral College system has worked. No election in this
century has been decided in the House of Representatives. Further, the winner's margin of votes is usually
enhanced in the electoral vote-a mathematical happening that can make the winner in a divisive and close
election seem to have won more popular support than he actually did. This is thought to aid the healing of
election scars and help the new president in governing.
www.ksg.harvard.edu/case/3pt/electoral.html
Form B
The Pro’s and Con’s of the Electoral College System
Arguments against the Electoral College:

The possibility of electing a minority president (meaning one without the absolute majority
of popular votes.)
A third party candidate draws enough votes that no one candidate receives the 270 votes
necessary to win the election.

The risk of so-called “faithless” Electors. Electors are supposed to vote for the candidate
they represent, but they don’t have to.

The possible role of the Electoral College in depressing voter turnout. Citizens feel their
vote doesn’t matter because the number of electoral votes has already been assigned.

The failure of the Electoral College to reflect the public will. The winner-take-all system
can allow a candidate with a smaller number of popular votes in the general election to win
the Electoral College and the presidency.
Arguments for the Electoral College:

Promotes unity in the nation by requiring a candidate to have support from various regions
in order to be elected. A candidate cannot receive support from only one region and expect
to be President regardless of the size of the population.

Enhances the status of minority groups. Small numbers of voters can make a difference in
whether a candidate receives all of the electoral votes for a state or not.

Contributes to the political stability of the nation. Promotes a two-party system. It is very
difficult for a third party to win enough votes to have a chance of winning the election.

Maintains a federal system of government and representation. Represents the State’s
choice for president and allows the state some power in decision making.
[ANSWER KEY]
CHALLENGE!
Campaign Management Strategy: Election 2000 and Beyond
Directions: Fill in the blanks on the following worksheet, using the maps and charts you have been given to answer
the questions. [this is the answer key]
A.
Interpreting Maps:
1. How many possible electoral votes are there? __________
(538)
2. How many electoral votes does a candidate need in order to win a presidential election? __________
(270)
3. Name the three states with the greatest number of electoral votes. ____________________________
(CA, TX, NY)
4. Name the three states with the least number of electoral votes. ______________________________
(AL, DE, MT, ND, SD, VT)
5. What is the fewest number of states necessary to win an election? __________
(11)
6. How many electoral votes does Illinois (IL) have? __________
(21)
7. How many senators does Hawaii (HI) have? __________
(2)
8. How many members of the House of Representatives does Florida (FL) have? __________
(27)
9. How many electoral votes does your state have? __________
 How many senators does your state have? __________
 How many members of the House of Representatives does your state have? __________
(answer varies; 2; answer varies)
10. How many electoral votes does Washington, D.C. have? __________
 How many senators does Washington, D.C. have? __________
 How many members of the House of Representatives does Washington, D.C. have? ________
 Why is this strange? What makes Washington, D.C. a special case? _____________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(3; 0; since DC has no senators and no members in the House, it should not have any electoral votes. However,
since people living in the District do pay taxes and share the same responsibilities as other US citizens, they must
be given the right to participate and have a voice in presidential elections.)
11. If you were a campaign manager, where would you advise your candidate to go – California (CA), or Virginia
(VA)? Why? _____________________________________________________________
(CA – it has more electoral votes than VA.)
B.
Situational Campaign Management Strategies:
Use the chart on voter trends in the last six elections to analyze the following situation.
 Familiarize yourself with the KEY on the chart.
 Read the headings and titles along the axes of the chart.
 Consider the questions you have already answered, and the maps you have studied when crafting your
strategy.
1. What does the “D” and “d” mean? The “R” and “r”? Each means something different.
2. Look at the left-most column. What do the terms, “Strongly Republican/Democrat,” “Leaning
Republican/Democrat,” and “Truly Competitive” mean for each state?
3. Using the KEY, answer the following questions about elections from 1972 to 2000. Abbreviations are
acceptable.
a) List the states that have been predominately Republican over the last eight elections.
AK, AL, ID, IN, KA, MS, NB, NC, ND, OK, SC, SD, TX, VA, WY
b) List the states that have been predominately Democratic over the last eight elections.
DC, HI, MA, MN, RI
c) List the states that have been “competitive” or “toss-ups” over the last eight elections.
AR, GA, KY, LA, MO, OH, TN, WV
d) Why would the states considered “leaning” be significant to a candidate who is campaigning for extra votes?
While these particular states have Democratic or Republican tendencies, a strong election and voter’s
needs could mean that the voters choose a candidate from the opposing party.
4. Consider the following Electoral College results from past elections.
Year of Election
Winning Party By State
Texas
Missouri
Republican
Republican
1988 Election
Republican
Democrat
1992 Election
Republican
Democrat
1996 Election
Republican
Republican
2000 Election
a) If you were a Democratic candidate running for President, where would you be more likely to campaign, Texas
or Missouri? Why?
(Probably Missouri – Given that Republicans have won the votes in Texas for the past 4+ elections, you would
have a better chance of winning in Missouri.)
b) If you were a Republican candidate running, where would you be more likely to go? In other words, how do you
maximize your total number of popular votes? Why?
(You would spend most of your time in Missouri. You would want to go to Texas to energize your party base, but
in reality you probably could win Texas with little work. It would be best to spend your time in Missouri because
you might have a chance of winning the state and taking Missouri votes away from the Democratic candidate.)
c) Which region of the country has the most electoral votes? The fewest? How do you think this influences the
election?
(The East generally has more votes than the West. So, with the exception of California, the Western states with
cities around them like NY, NJ, IL, have many votes because they have a larger population. Citizens in states
with large urban areas have more “say” in elections than do citizens in more rural states.)