a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
experience.
LEARNING
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
PAVLOV
Learning by association; involves involuntary response &
reflexive behavior
Russian physiologist studying digestion who discovered
classical conditioning & won the Nobel Prize.
JOHN WATSON
developed principles of classical conditioning
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
(UCS)
stimulus that automatically produces a reflex
Pavlov – food
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE
(UCR)
automatic response to the UCS
Pavlov – salivation
CONDITIONED STIMULUS
(CS)
CONDITIONED RESPONSE
(CR)
Timing Relationships:
SHORT-DELAYED CONDITIONING
TRACE CONDITIONING
SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING
begins as a neutral that doesn’t elicit a response & becomes
a CS after repeated pairings with the UCS.
Pavlov – tone
learned response when the CS is presented alone.
Pavlov - salivation
best conditioning; CS begins before & stops with the UCS
less effective; CS begins & ends before the UCS is
presented
least effective; CS & UCS begins & ends at exactly the
same time.
Principles of Conditioning (classical & operant):
EXTINCTION
eliminating the CR by no longer pairing the UCS w/CS
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
recurrence of the CR after a rest interval following
extinction.
GENERALIZATION
the CR occurs to a stimulus that is similar to the CS
DISCRIMINATION
the CR only occurs to the CS because the differences
between stimuli are detected.
RECONDITIONING
occurs after extinction when the CS & UCS are paired
again. Relearning is quicker than initial conditioning
HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING
pairing a previous CS w/a new CS. Creates a weaker and
easier to extinguish CR to the new CS.
Watson's unethical experiment with children
LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT
MOWER'S TWO FACTOR THEORY
UCS – noise
UCR – fear
CS – rat
CR – fear
Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and
maintained through operant conditioning; not extinguished
because avoiding/escaping makes it reinforcing
OPERANT CONDITIONING
(B. F. Skinner)
SKINNER BOX
THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT
SHAPING or SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
REINFORCERS
Principles of operant conditioning were developed by
Skinner. Responses are learned because of their
consequences; voluntary; reward follows behavior.
enclosure that provided food pellets, stimuli, & electric
shock; designed by Skinner.
behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated; behavior not
rewarded tends not to be repeated.
subject reinforced as they get successively closer to the
target behavior
consequences for behavior that increases the likelihood the
behavior will be repeated.
Primary reinforcers – meet biological needs; food, water,
air
Secondary reinforcers – have acquired value; grades,
money
Continuous schedules - every response is reinforced 100%
of the time.
CONTINUOUS VS. INTERMITTENT
REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULES
Intermittent schedules - response is not reinforced every
time. Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than
interval. Variable schedules are harder to extinguish than
fixed schedules
FIXED RATIO INTERMITTENT
SCHEDULE
reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses; high
rate of responding, but fastest rate of extinction because
subject realizes quickly that reinforcement has stopped.
VARIABLE RATIO INTERMITTENT
SCHEDULE
reinforcement after a varied number of responses; high rate
of responding, but extremely resistant to extinction.
FIXED INTERVAL INTERMITTENT
SCHEDULE
reinforcement after a certain amount of time; low rate of
responding after reinforcer & increase before reinforcement
interval; scalloped effect.
VARIABLE INTERVAL INTERMITTENT
SCHEDULE
reinforcement after a varied amount of time; steady, slow
rate of responding.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
(PR)
something desired (wanted) is presented to
increase/maintain behavior
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
(NR)
something aversive (not wanted) is removed to
increase/maintain behavior. It is removed by one of the
following methods:
Escape conditioning – terminates an aversive (not
wanted) stimulus
Avoidance conditioning – prevents exposure to an
aversive (not wanted ) stimulus
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
something aversive (not wanted) is given to
decrease/eliminate behavior
NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
something desired (wanted) is removed to
decrease/eliminate behavior
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
HABITUATION
OVERJUSTIFICATION EFFECT
DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI
GRADIENT OF REINFORCEMENT
PREMACK PRINCIPLE
The hopelessness that sets in when we can’t avoid or
escape aversive events.
Decreasing response to repeated exposure of a stimulus (get
use to it).
When we reinforce/justify and already internally
reinforcing behavior. It can create a desire to only do the
behavior for external reinforcement.
cues that indicate a response is likely to be reinforced
declining effectiveness with increasing delay. Also applies
to punishment.
what is reinforcing is subjective to the individual.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
(Albert Bandura)
MIRROR NEURONS
behavior learned by watching and imitating others; the
behavior is modeled and we copy the behavior. Bandura’s
Bobo doll research on aggression led to the concept of
observational learning.
Neurons (frontal lobe) fire when observing or copying
actions of others which allows imitation & empathy.
VICARIOUS LEARNING
learn consequences through observation of others
consequences; combines observational learning & operant
conditioning together
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
modeled behavior that is positive and helpful
Biological predispositions to learning:
IMPRINTING
INSTINCTUAL DRIFT
PREPAREDNESS
CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSIONS
Species behavior that is built in. Lorenz was the first
moving objects that the goslings saw so they followed him
thinking he was their mother.
instinctive behavior makes it easier/harder to learn a
response, such as trying to teach chickens to stand still on a
platform or Keller & Breland's raccoons
We are pre-wired to develop certain phobias as a survival
mechanism. EX: heights, snakes, spiders
can be learned in a single trial, especially if severe sickness.
May have been an adaptive response for survival.
Other learning:
LATENT LEARNING
COGNITIVE MAP
INSIGHT LEARNING
learning that is not demonstrated at the time but at a later
time when it is motivating to do so (Tolman)
learning patterns in the absence of reinforcement due to
exposure that creates a mental map; rats in the maze
(Tolman)
sudden awareness of the solution; Kohler’s chimps &
bananas
Application of conditioning:
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
applies conditioning to treating behaviors & disorders.
Used mostly with animals, young children, & people with
special challenges