Biology Writing Manual
By:
Doug Burks
Kendra Cipollini
Don Troike
Doug Woodmansee
August 2010
Table of Contents
Topic
Page Number
Introduction and use of writing manual
3
Late paper policy
4
Why writing is important
5
Time management
7
Finding references
9
Reading primary literature
11
Annotated bibliographies
13
Annotated bibliography grading rubric
15
Citing sources
16
Plagiarism
19
Research/laboratory reports
21
Research/laboratory reports grading rubric
24
Review papers
26
Review paper grading rubric
27
APPENDIX I: Format of the research paper/laboratory report
29
APPENDIX II: Format of the review paper
32
Notes
35
2
Introduction and Use of Writing Manual
The biology professors at Wilmington College have agreed to coordinate writing
expectations and formats in order to enhance student learning. Each student taking a
course in biology must first acquire the text cited below, which is available for purchase
at the bookstore (or from on-line vendors) or is found on reserve in Watson Library. This
manual is a supplement to the text, providing additional details and grading rubrics in
particular. It is necessary that you read and use both this manual and the text when
completing writing assignments for biology professors. In addition, your professor may
give you additional instructions or clarifications for a writing assignment. Please do not
hesitate to contact your professor if you have any additional questions that are not
addressed in the manual and text. Ignorance is no excuse for not completing your writing
assignments correctly.
A grading rubric is a document that explicitly describes the criteria to be used in
evaluating a student’s work. It provides guidelines that state the dimensions to be
assessed and the characteristics that lead to the assigning of specific grades. It reveals the
specific strengths and weaknesses in a work. We provide the rubrics used by all biology
professors at Wilmington College in this manual. Besides being used as guide for our
grading, you should consult the rubrics as a guide to help you in writing your papers.
When turning in an electronic paper, use the following naming format: Course_Date (in
YY/MM/DD format)_Last name and first initial_Version number (in Arabic numbers).
So for example, if John Smith turns in a first version of his paper on September 15, 2007
in his ENV133 class, he would name his electronic document
“ENV133_07/09/15_SmithJ_ 1” and send this document to his professor.
Required text: Knisely, Karin. 2009. A student handbook for writing in biology, 3rd
edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. This text will be cited as Knisely
(2009) throughout this manual.
3
Late Paper Policy
Wilmington College biology professors have adopted a unified policy concerning late
papers. A paper is late any time after 4:00 PM on the assignment’s due date, unless
otherwise indicated. In addition, any incomplete, substandard assignment submitted at
the deadline just to “get something in” will be considered late.
It is our purpose to help you to become better writers and often this is done in part by
dividing the writing process into steps, each of which can be reviewed and critiqued by
the professor. For example, a scientific project may begin with a library assignment and
annotated bibliography of relevant sources used to plan the project. Later, a presumptive
title and introduction may be collected. Still later, a methods section may be submitted.
Finally a draft of the paper may be requested prior to the final paper. Failure to submit
each of these components by their deadlines will result in deduction of points from the
final paper, if they are not graded separately. It should be noted that early submissions
are drafts, not “rough” drafts. Drafts have been proofread for grammar, style and
spelling; they only lack critical review by another knowledgeable person.
When preliminary papers are collected, you have the right to expect timely return with
appropriate constructive comments. It is our goal to return all preliminary drafts within
eight working days of the due date.
Submission of the final paper after the deadline will result in a 20% deduction of points
for each working day it is late. For example, if you hand in your late paper within one
working day of the due date, the highest score you can possibly receive is an 80%. If you
hand in your late paper within two working days of the due date, the highest score you
can receive is a 60%. If you hand in your paper within three working days of the due
date, the highest score you can receive is a 40%. Late papers will not be accepted after
three working days.
Exceptions to the late policy: With all exceptions it is expected that you will contact the
professor in advance or as soon as is reasonably possible. Contact the professor by
calling the professor’s office phone first. If the professor is not in, leave a message and
then follow up with an email. Documentation may be required.
• Serious illness prior to the due date, but not on the date, since it is assumed you
would have the paper done on that date. If you are off campus when ill, it is
expected you will make arrangements to email the paper.
• Unexpected death or serious injury/surgery of a family member or close friend.
• Weather conditions that close the highways or the College.
4
Why Writing is Important
by Doug Burks
René Descartes said, Cogito, ergo sum, translated as, “I think therefore I am”. For any
professional in today’s world, perhaps a better statement would be “I write therefore I
am.” Writing is the cornerstone of professional activity. I doubt that there is a day in
which I don’t communicate with other professionals in writing in some way. It may be
simply writing an email or it may be at the other end of the spectrum where I am working
on a research paper for publication. Perhaps a list of the types of writing I do might help
demonstrate the importance of writing to a professional. In a typical year I will write
emails, letters of recommendations for students, lectures, class handouts, class
assignments, tests, comments on student tests and papers, reviews of textbooks, grant
proposals, grant reports, and research papers for publication. The importance of writing
can be seen in the report “Writing: A Powerful Statement from State Government” where
it was stated that:
State agencies frequently require writing samples from job applicants.
Fully 91 percent of respondents in states that “almost always” take writing
into account also require a writing sample from prospective “professional”
employees. Of these states, 50 percent also require writing samples from
clerical and support personnel. “Oral and writing skills are absolutely
essential in a service- and knowledge-based economy. This is a very
different economy from one based on agriculture or industry,” said one
personnel director.
Writing is a more significant promotion consideration in state government
than in the private sector. In 2004, about half of all corporations in the
Business Roundtable survey reported taking writing into account in
professional promotion either “frequently” or “almost always.” More than
60 percent of state agencies do so. Said one state respondent: “At the
higher levels, we check for how well people can organize their thoughts
and respond to a complicated question.1
In a 1995 report in “The Journal of Quality Participation it was stated that “Modern
professionals now spend more time than ever wordsmithing on their PowerBooks, PC
laptops and Pentium PCs -- up to 70 percent of their day.”2 Writing is a fundamental skill
for all professionals. Professional success is dependent upon the ability to write
effectively and clearly. If you are preparing for your future in a career, time spent
developing the ability to write well is worth the investment.
For a biologist an even more important reason that writing is important is that research
papers, monographs, and books are the record of what has been done and is known in the
discipline. It is the record of progress in understanding. That record is what enables
human knowledge to be progressive. For instance, I know what Charles Darwin did and
thought about evolution because I have read the Origin of Species. By looking at the
1
2
2005. Writing: A Powerful Statement from State Government. College Board. Page 5.
Egan, Michael, 1995. Total Quality Business Writing. The Journal of Quality Participation
5
written record of his data and arguments I can judge the validity of the idea. I can also
discover new questions to pursue to enlarge our understanding of evolution. It is not
enough to do experiments and discover new knowledge. That information and
knowledge must be communicated. Your contributions to biology will be judged by what
you write.
6
Time Management
by Doug Burks
William Penn said that “Time is what we want most, but what we use worst.”
Writing is hard work. It is a process that is done in several steps. Preparing a research
paper or laboratory report is a good example. In preparing a research paper, you will
need to read several scientific articles to use in your report. After performing
experiments, you will organize, analyze and interpret your data. You will now be ready
to write a first draft of the paper. In Chapter 4, Knisely (2009) suggests that writing a
first draft should be done over a two-day period. She next suggests that you proofread
and revise your first draft after taking a day’s break from the writing process. This draft
should be shared with a classmate for review, while you review their draft. From the
comments from your peer review, you then revise the paper again to produce a final copy
for turning into the professor. This process according to Knisely (2009) will take a
minimum of 7 to 8 days. Larger more important papers take longer. Knisely (2009)
encourages professors to request that not only the final paper be turned in but all drafts
done by the student. Clearly, writing effectively requires a lot of time.
There are few assignments in college that can be started the night before they are due
without a bad result. Developing good time management skills are critical to success in
college and even more importantly in a career.
We have several tips you might want to consider in terms of time management planning.
Tip 1: Start using a time management now (day 1). Too many students turn to a time
management system after they have fallen behind and then are madly trying to
catch up. You need to realize that is very easy to fall behind and next to
impossible to catch up even with the best efforts and time management.
Cramming is a sure path to failure.
Tip 2: Develop a time management system that you can follow. Here we suggest a
simple time management system. First, you should set goals for the semester.
Your goals should include all aspects of your life. This includes academics, work,
social life and activities. Then set priorities. Be realistic! You need to include
fun time. As the semester and school year proceeds, re-evaluate your goals.
Develop sub-goals, which are things to be done in each major goal category.
Next, you should plan, plan and plan. We suggest that you plan in monthly
blocks. Using a calendar with months for the entire semester, place the due date
of all assignments as you receive them. List the dates of all tests on the calendar.
List the date of events you want to attend (field trips, parties, sports events, visits
home, holidays, etc.) With each assignment, now analyze how long it will take to
do. Start putting into the calendar check-points for assignments. For a lab report
you might have the date to finish your background research and reading, the date
to have the first draft done, the date for peer review, and the date to have the final
draft done. The more realistic you are about the time it takes to do a particular
7
project the better able you will be able to do high quality work. An important
component of planning is to keep track of how much time you are spending on
things. Falling behind and cramming is the road to failure and high anxiety.
Tip 3: Procrastination is your enemy. It is a powerful enemy, with over 50% of college
students listing this as a major personal problem. The old saying: “Don’t put off
what you can do today until tomorrow,” should become your mantra.
Tip 4: An excellent site to visit is Muskingum College’s time management page at
http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/time.html
Another excellent site to visit is Penn State’s web page at
http://www.ulc.psu.edu/studyskills/time_management.html
8
Finding References
by Kendra Cipollini
There are different types of references that can be used in biological writing. As stated
by Knisely (2009), primary literature is “journal articles, dissertations, technical reports,
or conference papers in which a scientist describes his or her original works.” To identify
a primary reference, it is a good rule of thumb to look for a “Methods” section.
Generally, if it has a Methods section, it is primary literature. Secondary literature
includes encyclopedias, textbooks and review articles. A third type of literature can be
called “science journalism,” and includes articles in newspapers and magazines. Usually,
you will be required to use primary literature for the most part. However, even if you
cannot use secondary or tertiary literature for your actual paper, this type of literature can
provide important background if you are having difficulty understanding the primary
literature. It can also lead you towards interesting and relevant primary literature sources,
especially in the case of review articles. Internet sources are considered secondary
literature or science journalism and must be read with skepticism. As internet sources are
not peer-reviewed, many of your professors will not accept internet sources. The internet
is a great place to find very basic information or to find more primary sources, but be
certain to validate any information gathered on the internet. It is important to note that
some journals, which are considered primary literature, are published only on the
internet, which causes some confusion. Only peer-reviewed on-line journals are
considered primary literature. It is important to note that many references can be
accessed using the internet to find electronic versions. These are not internet sources;
they are simply electronic versions of published journals and other resources. Please
contact your professor if you are having trouble distinguishing between different types of
resources.
Wilmington College’s Watson Library is in a consortium of Ohio college and university
libraries, known as “Ohiolink.” Ohiolink is one of the nation’s top library systems and it
offers a wealth of information. You can find and get library resources from around the
state, if you give yourself enough time to track them down.
Watson Library itself has a wealth of resources, with journals, texts, and databases in
both electronic and paper forms. The Watson Library can be visited online at
www.watsonlibrary.org. OPAL is the on-line database which tells you what resources
Watson Library has and provides links to electronic resources. OhioLink is the on-line
database of the consortium of Ohio colleges and universities, which tells you what
resources are available state-wide. OhioLink also has important databases you can use to
perform your literature search. Some databases that you may find helpful are MedLine,
Agricola, Biosis. ISI Web of Science, and Annual Reviews. Once you find an article
using these databases, you can then use the “Find it!” function to find out where you can
get a copy of the paper, either electronically or in hardcopy. If Watson Library does not
have it (either in hardcopy or in electronic copy), you have two choices. First, you could
use the Interlibrary Loan to request a hardcopy to be sent to you. Another choice is to
physically visit another college’s library to find the article. Your barcode for other
colleges and universities is 9 digits, 3 zeros followed by your 6-digit CARS ID number.
9
Wright State University, University of Cincinnati and Ohio State University have
extensive collections and are fairly convenient to Wilmington College.
Please keep in mind that an effective library search takes many hours to perform. You
cannot simply type in two keywords and then use the first ten papers that you find for
your writing assignment. You may have to perform many different searches in many
different databases to find the papers most relevant to your topic of interest.
The library staff at Watson Library is very helpful; do not hesitate to ask anyone for
additional assistance.
10
Reading Primary Literature
by Doug Burks
Honestly, reading primary literature is hard work. This is true even for professionals. A
single reading is not sufficient to lead to understanding. You will likely need to read
some parts of the paper several times. Reading a scientific research report is not like
reading a newspaper, novel or even a textbook. It is a written form that is information
dense. It is a terse and concise style in which almost every sentence is critical to
understanding the whole. To be successful, you will need to develop unique strategies
and approaches to reading.
In approaching the reading of a research paper, remember that research papers are written
by experts in the field for other experts in the field. The number of terms and ideas that
will be unfamiliar might be almost overwhelming. The first advice is that, when reading
a research report on a topic that you are unfamiliar with, reviewing general concepts in a
textbook or going to the internet is a good idea. As you read, it is also helpful to be near
a computer connected to the internet, to be able to look up words, terms and ideas that
you don’t know. In reading a research paper you can’t skip or gloss over words that you
don’t know. Remember that in a research paper most sentences are important in
understanding the whole.
Research papers are written in discrete sections and one doesn’t necessarily read them
from beginning to end in a linear fashion. We suggest that you read and analyze the
paper by following the steps below.
1. Read the Title, Abstract, Introduction and Conclusions of the paper. After
reading these sections you might to write down what question is being asked in
the paper, what are the hypotheses being tested, what data supports the
hypotheses and what is the major conclusion.
2. Read the Materials & Methods. From this you should be able to explain what
experiments are being performed to test the hypotheses, i.e., answer the questions
being asked.
3. Read the Results section. In reading the results section first skim the narrative
text. Then analyze each figure and table in depth. In each figure or table
identify the dependent and independent variables, control groups, experimental
groups, and determine the main findings being revealed in each figure. Finally go
back and read the Results narrative a second time.
4. Read the Discussion/Conclusion section again. This time focus on the argument
by the authors to convince you that their conclusions about the hypotheses
are correct. Pay particular attention to the data from results section that they
point to as evidence for their conclusions.
5. List the evidence in support of the conclusions and to go back and analyze the
data to see if you agree with conclusions.
6. Set aside time to visit a biology professor if you have questions when you read a
paper. Even, we as professors go to colleagues with questions when we struggle
with a paper. Remember that reading a scientific research paper is hard work.
11
This is as true for us as for you. Seeking help and the insight form others is
wisdom that all of us have learned over time.
7. Finally, in about two paragraphs you should write a personal summary of the
paper in which you describe the question being asked and the hypotheses
proposed and in which you describe the major experimental evidence that either
supports or negates the hypothesis being tested. You need to be able to describe
the experiments and results of experiments in your own words to demonstrate that
you really understand the paper. This step describes the beginning of what is
typically called an annotated bibliography. Preparing an annotated bibliography
is an important step in writing either a research and review paper. The next
section describes in detail how to write a formal annotated bibliography.
As we said at the beginning of this section, this is hard work. However, we also believe
that is rewarding work. Research reports are the way that new knowledge is conveyed in
biology. It is nascent knowledge at the cutting edge of our understanding.
12
Annotated Bibliography
The objectives of this assignment are as follows:
• Gain in-depth background on your research topic
• Enhance your library skills; use resources including OPAL, OhioLink,
Interlibrary Loan and Electronic Journal Center
• Refine your writing skills
• Better learn how to critically analyze scientific literature
• Practice writing to a scientific audience
“To help other researchers: Extensive and scholarly
annotated bibliographies are sometimes published.
They provide a comprehensive overview of everything
important that has been and is being said about that
topic. You may not ever get your annotated
bibliography published, but as a researcher, you might
want to look for one that has been published about your
topic.”
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/614/01/.
Copyright ©1995-2010 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at
Purdue and Purdue University.
You will work with your advisor to define your research topic, based on your interests
and on ongoing research in your advisor’s research laboratory. Please work with your
advisor as soon as possible to determine your research topic. Your final annotated
bibliography is due in class on date. Late papers will not be accepted.
Your final annotated bibliography will have the following components:
Title: The title includes your name, the date and the title of your paper.
Summary of Topic: Summarize your topic and the key research related to your topic.
Your summary should be 2-3 pages in length (double-spaced, 12-point Times New
Roman Font, 1" margins).
Literature Cited: Cite all the papers you have referenced in your summary. Do not
include any articles that you did not cite in your paper. You should have at least ten
primary scientific literature references in your literature cited and in your
annotations. Use the APA format for citations (go to
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_apa.html for tips). Internet sources are
unacceptable for this assignment. Please note that the literature that you collect for the
annotated bibliography is not the only literature you will have to use for your proposal.
13
Annotated Bibliography: Use single spacing for your annotated bibliography. Ten
scientific papers of your choosing will be annotated at (at least 250 words but no more
than a page, single-spaced for each annotation). More information about how to annotate
papers in a bibliography can be found at the following websites:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_annotatedbib.html
http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/skill28.htm#what.
http://www.millikin.edu/staley/annotate.html
http://library.umcrookston.edu/annotate.htm
“ANNOTATIONS VS. ABSTRACTS. Abstracts are the purely descriptive
summaries often found at the beginning of scholarly journal articles or in
periodical indexes. Annotations are descriptive and critical; they expose
the author's point of view, clarity and appropriateness of expression, and
authority.”
2010. Online Library Reference. Research & Learning Services.
Cornell University Library. Ithaca, NY, USA.
http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/skill28.htm#what.
In each annotation, you will summarize the paper by clearly describing the question being
asked, the experimental rationale for answering the question, the important data that
supports conclusions to be drawn and the conclusions from the experiments. You should
also evaluate the paper. This means that you must make a critical assessment of each
article, rather than simply summarizing the study. Discuss some of the strengths and
weaknesses of the articles. You should answer the question: Did the researchers provide
sufficient and good evidence to support the conclusions they drew.
Abstracts From the Papers: As a separate document for the convenience of the
grader, you must turn in the abstracts for all the papers along with your final
bibliography.
14
Annotated Bibliography Grading Rubric
Components
Annotative
Summary
Outstanding
Good
Average
Below Average
• Provides full, accurate
and concise summary
of hypotheses,
experiments and major
conclusions
• Provides accurate and
concise summary of
hypotheses,
experiments, and major
conclusions
• Provides basic
summary of
hypotheses,
experimental design
and major conclusions
Annotative
Evaluation
• Thoroughly discusses
the strengths and
weaknesses of the
article
• Thoughtfully and fully
compares and contrasts
results to other
annotated works
• Thoroughly describes
how published research
relates to personal
research project
• Provides greater
discussion of the
strengths and
weaknesses of the
article
• Compares and contrasts
results to other
annotated works
• Provides adequate
information on how
published research
relates to personal
research project
• Provides adequate
discussion of the
strengths and
weaknesses of the
article
• Provides some
comparison to other
annotated works
• Provides some
information on how
published research
relates to personal
research project
• Provides inaccurate
and/or wordy summary
of research results
• Description of
hypotheses,
experimental design
and major conclusions
missing
• Discussion of strengths
and weaknesses is
lacking
• Does not compare
results to other
annotated works
• Makes no connections
between published
research and personal
research project
Grammar and
mechanics
• No spelling or
grammatical errors
• Paragraphs
appropriately structured
• Written very well
• Provides abstract for
each article
• Follows correct
formatting for paper
and citations, including
fonts and margins
• Name and date are
displayed
• Citations are in correct
format
• Paper is stapled
• Very little spelling or
grammatical errors
• Written well
• Some spelling or
grammatical errors
• Adequately written
• Provides abstract for
each article
• Very minor formatting
errors only
• Name and date are
displayed
• Citations are in correct
format
• Paper is stapled
• Provides abstract for
each article
• Follows correct
formatting for the most
part
• Name and date are
displayed
• Citations are in correct
format for the most part
• Paper is stapled
Format
Overall
Evaluation
15
• Many spelling and
grammatical errors
• Paragraphs lacking
unity and/or structure
• Written simplistically
• One or more abstracts
missing for each article
• Fails to meet
formatting guidelines
• Name and/or date are
missing
• Citations in incorrect
format for the most part
• Paper is not stapled
Citing Sources
by Doug Woodmansee
Citing sources can be one of the most vexing parts of scientific writing. The process is
difficult on multiple levels. The first problem is, “What sources are appropriate and
where do I find them?” Most writing assignments in biology at Wilmington College will
require you to use sources drawn from the scientific literature. These sources include
primary scientific literature (peer-reviewed research papers), secondary scientific
literature (review articles) and occasionally, science textbooks. Encyclopedias,
dictionaries, and common web sites are not usually acceptable sources (if they are, your
professor will make that clear). It is also not appropriate to “cite citations,” meaning that
if you find an interesting tidbit in a paper and the tidbit has obviously been drawn from
another paper, you need to look at the paper in which the information was originally
published. While at Wilmington College, you will be trained in the use of databases to
help you locate appropriate literature (see chapter 2 in this manual).
The second question is usually “Which of the sources that I have found do I use?”
Figuring out which sources are the best requires you to critically evaluate the sources that
your literature search has uncovered. Professional scientists take this process to the
extreme, making a deliberate attempt to find, read, understand and evaluate everything
that has ever been written (in the peer-reviewed scientific literature of course) about the
topic. Only then can they be sure that the information they pull into their own papers is
the most up-to-date, trustworthy and applicable information available. It is not unusual
for a review article on a complex topic to have 200 to 300 references and, yes, the author
has read every single one of them. In a research report, 10 to 20 references is more
common but rest assured that the author has read far more papers than are cited. The cited
references are, in the author’s opinion, the subset of the relevant scientific literature
(perhaps hundreds of papers) that is most appropriate for the current work.
Undergraduate students are rarely held to the professional standard. You are after all, just
now learning how science works. But undergraduate students are expected to utilize
current and relevant source material. Whether you have been given the source material as
part of the assignment, or you have been asked to track material down yourself, there is
an expectation that you will work with sources the way a professional scientist does:
scouring the sources for information that enhances your paper by providing background,
context, corroboration and the like, placing that information in the appropriate places in
your paper and clearly indicating to the reader the source of the information.
Once you have decided what information from outside sources to put in your paper and
where in your paper it is to go, you must cue the reader to the source of that information.
You use two tools to do this: in-text references and the Literature Cited section. There are
a variety of in-text reference and Literature Cited styles and style you are to use should be
specified in your assignment.
For assignments where you are reporting data that you have generated in an experiment
of some sort, your biology professors have agreed to use the name-year system described
16
in Chapter 4 of Knisely (2009) for most of our writing assignments. For assignments
where you will be reviewing and analyzing a set of papers, you will probably be asked to
use the citation sequence system. Tables 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6 (on pages 78 – 81) of Knisely
(2009) provide a summary of both systems. The selection of these styles by the biology
professors does not mean that these styles are “right” and other styles are “wrong.” If
you are preparing a manuscript for publication in a scientific journal, it is essential that
you acquire a copy of that journal’s “Instructions to Authors” document. In it you will
find the citation style required by that journal and you MUST use that style if you intend
to publish in that journal. Sadly, the hundreds of scientific journals currently being
published have never been able to agree on a uniform reference style. Therefore, there is
no one “correct” reference style; the “correct” style is simply the style that your professor
or journal editor asks for.
Believe it or not, punctuation matters in a Literature Cited section. During your college
years, your professors may choose to grade the punctuation pattern more or less strictly
but you should be aware that the editors of real journals are always very strict. If the
format asks for a comma and you put in a period, then a journal editor will demand that
you fix it or your paper will not be published. It is a good idea to get into the habit of
proofing Literature Cited carefully while you are still a student. If you become a
professional scientist, it will become a way of life.
Even more important than the style is the basic concept that each piece of information
you pull in from the scientific literature must be tagged with an in-text reference and a
corresponding Literature Cited entry. Conversely, every entry in Literature Cited must
connect back to a piece of information in the text of your paper. Knisely (2009) says it
but it bears repeating here; Literature Cited is NOT a list of things you read while
working on the paper and it is NOT a list of “recommended readings.” Literature Cited is
a tool that readers can use to trace a piece of information in your paper back to its original
source.
For example, let’s say that I include the following sentence in a paper: “Infection of the
human brain by Toxoplasma gondii was first described by Sabin (1941).” The reader sees
“Sabin (1941)” and knows that there will be a corresponding entry in Literature Cited. It
will look like this:
Sabin A. 1941. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in children. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 116:801-807.
Notice that the journal’s title is abbreviated. The easiest way to find the official
abbreviation for a particular journal is to go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez and
search the “Journals” database using the journal’s name as keywords.
The reader now has all of the information required to find and read Albert Sabin’s
original account of the first well studied case of cerebral toxoplasmosis in humans. The
reader could then decide for themselves if Sabin’s paper was described accurately.
Remember, the in-text references and Literature Cited sections are tools to direct readers
to the original sources of the information. The entries must be complete and accurate.
17
Imagine what would happen to the reader’s attempt to track down the paper if there was
an error and the paper had been published in 1931 instead of 1941!
In summary, study the scientific literature on your topic. Every idea or fact that you find
in the scientific literature and choose to include in your paper must be tagged with an intext reference and a Literature Cited entry. Use the name-year system described in
Chapter 4 of Knisely (2009) unless you are specifically told to use a different style.
Make sure your entries are accurate and that they are punctuated precisely as Knisely
(2009) stipulates. Direct quotes are seldom used in scientific writing. One should avoid
direct quotes and a work should have one or two direct quotes at most. Citations are
essential to the serious reader and a critical tool for the advancement of science as a
whole.
18
Plagiarism
by Doug Woodmansee
Academic plagiarism is, at its heart, taking credit for another person’s work. Sometimes
this is done deliberately, other times it is done more or less unwittingly. Either way, it is
serious misconduct that can have severe consequences. At Wilmington College, it can
result in a very bad grade for an assignment (or a whole course) and may trigger judicial
proceedings. In the world of work, it can result in poor performance reviews, job loss and
may even trigger a lawsuit. The biology professors have agreed to assign a grade of “0”
to any piece of student work that the professor believes to be plagiarized. If it is a second
offense at Wilmington College, you will receive an “F” for the entire course.
In an educational setting, the real problem with plagiarism is that you learn nothing from
doing it. The purpose of a college education is to build a knowledge base and a set of
intellectual skills that can serve you for the rest of your life. Plagiarism, even if you get
away with it, doesn’t help you do these things. When you leave college and get a job,
your employer may be disappointed to discover that you simply do not have the
intellectual skills that are expected of a college graduate.
Here is one common scenario for plagiarism. A student has a paper of some sort to write
and the student knows nothing about the topic. The deadline is looming. Something has
to go on the paper. What to do?
Google.
A page or two is found that seems to be what the professor is looking for. “Select”;
“Copy”; “Paste”. A little touch-up here and there and … “Print”. Sometimes a whole
paper is manufactured this way; other times the downloaded material is added to genuine
student work which clearly needed some propping up.
Deliberate plagiarism is not hard for a professor to detect or to deal with. It is usually
painfully obvious what the student has done and a quick Google search will usually
reveal the source document in a matter of seconds. If the student is clearly trying to
deceive, the professor’s response is usually frustration and disappointment. A grade of
“0” is assigned and a letter to the Dean’s office is produced in no time flat.
Much more difficult for everyone to deal with is that grey area between overt plagiarism
and really bad research. Sometimes students assume that if they reference their sources
then they can not be charged with plagiarism. After all, they are not claiming that the
words are their own. The problem with this reasoning is that the student has not learned
any more about the topic than the student who does not reference the source. The
professor knows that the student has not really engaged with the topic and has learned
little of value from the assignment. It sure feels like plagiarism to the professor but is it
really?
19
At this point in the story something interesting usually happens. The student who builds a
paper using the copy and paste method is almost always too harried or disengaged to do
the references correctly. Quotes are often attributed to sources in which they do not
appear, the actual source is either not listed at all or has something else attributed to it.
There is almost always something seriously wrong with the references. The paper now
meets the formal criteria for plagiarism and can be prosecuted as such, even though the
student didn’t intend to deceive the professor.
The key to avoiding both deliberate and inadvertent plagiarism is to have something of
your own to say on the topic at hand. You can only generate your own thoughts about a
topic if you have studied the topic to some extent. The more deeply you study the topic,
the more likely your thoughts will be interesting, novel and appropriate to the facts. In
other words don’t just select and copy the material you find; read it, understand it, think
about it, and intellectually engage with it.
The best way to keep from paraphrasing a source is to write your draft not looking at
your sources as you write. You can go back and look at sources after writing the first
draft.
Obviously this process takes time (and a little effort too), which brings us to a recurring
theme in this manual. Don’t put off your assignments till the last minute. Give yourself
time to read, understand, reflect upon and internalize the information you find. The point
of college is to learn things, not to generate paper with ink on it. In all likelihood your
professor is interested in what you know about a topic, not what someone else knows
about a topic. The process of pasting information from one document to another bypasses
the ultimate goal of the assignment: your education.
20
Research Paper/Laboratory Report
by Doug Burks
The scientific research paper, or laboratory report, is a report in which the author
communicates information about the results of a scientific investigation, which was
performed to answer a question. The scientific paper is the record of outcome of research
and experimentation that becomes the reference for future scientific questions and
comparison. It provides to the reader what was done, why it was done, the observations
made, information obtained, and the significance of the results. It provides information
that enables other researchers to repeat experiments to validate the results and that
enables other researchers to extend the work presented. Foremost, it is written to
persuade others to accept or reject a hypothesis presented in the study. It presents new
ideas that the author believes should become part of the body of scientific knowledge. It
is the source document in which all new scientific knowledge is found today in scientific
communities.
To become a good scientist it is important that you develop the ability to write and
produce a good scientific research paper. It is the bread-and-butter form of
communication for the scientist. Doing good research is not enough to make one a good
scientist. It is essential that a scientist be proficient at communicating and convincing
others the results of their research are providing new scientific insight. It is important to
develop the ability to communicate the what, how and why of your research to others. A
poorly written scientific research paper can lead others to reject or ignore what might be
good scientific work.
The research paper is a distinctive style of writing. Its purpose is to convey information
and to persuade the reader of the validity of conclusions. It has a unique form which
must be rigidly followed. It has defined sections which include the title, abstract,
introduction, materials, methods, results, discussion/conclusions, and references. Each
section of the research paper has a specific purpose and information content (Please see
Box 1 for a description of sections of the research paper). Though there is a need to
follow the format exactly, one should not forget that it is how information is presented
that will persuade the reader of the validity of conclusions.
One can get lost in following style and not do a good job of conveying their data, ideas
and conclusions. The rigidity of style and need for effective persuasive writing make the
scientific research paper one of the most difficult forms of writing. However, producing
a well-written convincing research paper is one of the most satisfying writing experiences
we know. We hope this will become true for you.
21
Box 1. Description of the sections of a scientific research paper.
Title
A title should be short and to the point. It should accurately convey the scope and purpose of the paper. In
many cases, a good title includes the dependent variable(s), the independent variable(s) and the scientific
name of the organism studied. Please refer to page 76 of Knisely (2009).
Abstract
The abstract is a one to two paragraph that provides a summary of the report. It highlights the findings
made by the scientist and why they are of importance and interest to the scientific community. It
gives the major conclusions of the research performed. Your audience will use the abstract to decide if
they will finish reading the paper. Make the abstract good.
The abstract should contain a statement of the question being asked; the hypothesis being tested; the results
obtained; and the major conclusions from the study. Please refer to page 75 of Knisely (2009).
Introduction
An introduction gives the reader the background necessary to understand the study. It should include a
description why you are interested in asking the question, a description of any previous studies that led to
the study, background information necessary to understand the study, a description of the specific purpose
of the study, a description of the hypothesis being tested and a brief summary of the experimental strategy
being used. Please refer to pages 74-75 of Knisely (2009).
Materials and Methods
This section describes the materials used to perform the experiment and the specific procedures used in
performing the experiment.
You should include a description of the experiments that were performed. The description of the
experiments should be detailed and precise enough to enable another to repeat the experiment and to obtain
the same results. Any specific equipment, chemicals and organisms should be mentioned and their source
described. Materials and methods are described in a narrative paragraph form.. Please refer to pages 5255 of Knisely (2009).
Results
The results should contain the outcome of experiments and any statistical analysis of the results performed.
Scientific papers seldom-present raw data. You should think about how to present your results. You may
want to present them as tables or graphs. You should highlight any data that will be important in drawing
conclusions. However, you should not draw conclusions in the results section. Please refer to pages 55-74
of Knisely (2009).
Discussion
This is the section where you draw conclusions and present your interpretation of the results. In this
section you should state what your results mean and to relate your results to other studies and findings.
The last paragraph should be a statement of your main conclusions. (Please refer to page 74 of Knisely
(2009).
References
In this section you should cite sources used in performing and writing the report.
(Please refer to pages 77-89 of Knisely (2009).
22
A biology lab report checklist is provided on pages 120-121 in Knisely. In Chapter 6,
Knisely (2009) provides a sample student laboratory report. It is an excellent model of an
ideal paper. Also in this chapter on page 132-135, Knisely provides a list of common
laboratory mistakes and shorthand marks your professor may use in grading reports you
prepare.
23
Research papers/laboratory reports will be graded using the following rubric.
Research Paper Grading Rubric
Components
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Materials
and Methods
Outstanding
• Is descriptive of question and
work performed
• Includes dependent variable,
independent variable and
organism studied
• States clearly question being
asked
• Gives hypothesis being tested
• Highlights most important
findings with enough information
to understand experiments
• States major findings and
conclusions
• Is a concise summary of question
and findings
• Provides the reader with the
necessary information to
understand the present study
• Piques the readers interest and
makes the importance of the
question real
• Gives appropriate information to
previous studies that has an
impact on the current study
• Does not contain superfluous
information and/or is not wordy
• Gives a description of the
specific purpose of the study, a
description of the hypothesis
being tested and a brief summary
of the experimental strategy
being used at the end of the
introduction
• Gives a description of the study
system and why it is appropriate
to use it to answer hypothesis
• Is written in paragraph form in
past tense
• Describes how the experiment
was performed with sufficient
detail to enable another scientist
to repeat the experiment and
obtain the same results
• Presents easy-to-follow steps
which are logical and adequately
detailed without including
standard procedures that all
scientist know how to do
• Specific chemicals and
equipment are mentioned along
with their source (not as a list)
Good
Average
Below Average
• Gives a general
description of question
and work performed
• Missing one of the
following: dependent
variable, independent
variable and organism
studied
• Is missing one
component of good
abstract
• Abstract is not well
organized or concise
• Is present
• Missing two of the
following: dependent
variable, independent
variable and organism
studied
• Not present
• Is missing two
components of a good
abstract
• Does not give an
overview that leads
directly to the reader
being able to state the
major findings of the
study
• Is missing three or
more components of a
good abstract
• Is not written in a
scientific style
• Contains some
superfluous information
• Does not pique the
interest of the reader
• Is missing some needed
background information
• Gives too much
information--more like a
summary
• Has all the components
of a good introduction
but some parts may be
difficult to understand
• Gives a description of
the study system with
some comment on its
appropriate use
• Is missing one or two
components of a good
introduction
• Contains significant
superfluous
information
• Gives a description of
the study system
• Is missing needed
information to
understand the present
study
• Is missing a
description of the
specific purpose of
the study, a
description of the
hypothesis being
tested and/or a brief
summary of the
experimental strategy
being used at the end
of the introduction
• Contains no
information about the
study system
• Is written in paragraph
form in past tense
• Describes how the
experiment was
performed with
sufficient detail to
enable another scientist
to repeat the experiment
and obtain the same
results
• Most steps are
understandable but some
lack detail or are
confusing
• Most specific chemicals
and equipment are
mentioned along with
their source (not as a
list)
• Is written in
paragraph form in
past tense
• Describes how the
experiment was
performed with some
critical details are
lacking
• Most steps are
understandable but
some lack detail or
are confusing
• Most specific
chemicals and
equipment are
mentioned along with
their source (not as a
list)
• Is lacking several
critical details so that
it is impossible to
repeat the
experiments described
• Many steps are
missing in describing
steps in an experiment
• Chemicals and
equipment are in a list
or are not described
24
Components
Results
Good
Average
Below Average
• All pertinent data is described
• Raw unprocessed data is absent
• Results presented as both
narrative text and in figures and
tables
• Data presented in a logical
manner to enable the reader to
draw conclusions
• Important data is highlighted
• No conclusions are present
• All tables and figures have
appropriate legends
• All tables and figures are
described in the narrative text
Outstanding
• All pertinent data is
described
• Raw unprocessed data is
absent
• Most results presented as
both narrative text and in
figures and tables
• Most data presented in a
logical manner to enable
the reader to draw
conclusions
• Most important data is
highlighted
• All tables and figures
have appropriate legends
• All tables and figures are
described in the
narrative text
• Most pertinent data is
described
• Raw unprocessed data
is absent
• Most results presented
as both narrative text
and in figures and
tables
• Most data presented
in a logical manner to
enable the reader to
draw conclusions
• Most important data
is highlighted
• Most of the tables and
figures have
appropriate legends
• Most tables and
figures are described
in the narrative text
• Raw unprocessed data
is present
• Some results
presented as both
narrative text and in
figures and tables
• Data not clearly
presented
• Important data not
highlighted
• Data in tables or
figures not described
in narrative form
Discussion/
Conclusions
• Question and hypothesis restated
• Conclusions are stated clearly
with explicit reference to the data
that support a conclusion
• Argument for conclusions well
organized
• Importance of conclusions
discussed
• Conclusions related to other
studies and put into a context of
current knowledge
• Clear differentiation between
speculations and conclusions
• Final paragraph states the major
finding of the study (the take
home message)
• Conclusions are stated
clearly with explicit
reference to the data that
support a conclusion
• Argument for
conclusions is generally
well organized
• Importance of
conclusions discussed
• Conclusions related to
other studies and put into
a context of current
knowledge
• Final paragraph states
the major finding of the
study (the take home
message)
• Conclusions are stated
clearly with reference
to the data that
support a conclusion
• Argument for the
conclusions can be
understood but
difficult to follow
• Final paragraph states
the major finding of
the study (the take
home message)
• Conclusions are stated
but without sufficient
reference to the
results that support it.
• Lacking several of the
characters of a good
discussion
References
• All cited sources present
• In required format
• Most cited sources
present
• Generally in required
format
• Many paragraphs well
organized
• Several grammatical
errors, typos, and
misspelling may be
present
• Many sources absent
• Inappropriate format
Grammar
and
mechanics
• All cited sources present
• No references not cited in the
body present
• In the required format
• Paragraphs well organized
• Sections with logical
organization of paragraphs
(especially introduction, results
and conclusions)
• Few grammatical errors, typos
and misspellings
• Appropriate word selection
• Correct use of scientific terms
Format
• All components in the
appropriate format
• Author name displayed
• Paper stapled
• An attempt made to
follow required
format
• Author name
displayed
• Paper stapled
• No evidence of
required format or
• Author name missing
• Paper not stapled
• Most paragraphs well
organized
• Sections with logical
organization of
paragraphs (especially
introduction, results and
conclusions)
• Several grammatical
errors, typos, and
misspelling Some
misappropriate word
useage errors (effect vs.
affect)
• Some misuse of
scientific terms
• Most components of the
required format followed
• Author name displayed
• Paper stapled
Overall
Evaluation
25
• Paper lacks well
organized paragraphs
• Sections do not
contain information
presented in a logical
order
• Many grammatical
errors
• Many misappropriate
word useage errors
(effect vs. affect)
• Many misuses of
scientific terms
Review Papers
by Doug Burks
The literature review paper is one which summarizes the current state of knowledge on a
topic. It leads to an understanding of the topic by discussing the findings in appropriate
recent research reports. A review paper presents a synthesis of several recent primary
literature papers to provide a coherent idea or argument about the topic. It is not just a
summary of several papers that you have found. The Writing Center at the University of
North Carolina states that:
A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a
synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It
might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old
interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field,
including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature
review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant.” 3
You should be able in a sentence or two describe the idea. You are presenting evidence
for an idea about a topic that you have developed by studying a field. In presenting
evidence you need to focus on describing the experimental data you found that support or
refutes the view you are presenting. You need to provide a description of both the data
and experimental techniques to the reader so they can judge your conclusions.
A well written literature review must do these things:
a) be organized around and related directly to the thesis you are developing
b) describe, analyze and evaluate the data that supports or refutes the thesis of
the review
c) synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
d) relate sources cited to the topic discussed
e) identify areas of controversy in the literature
f) formulate questions that need further research
3
2005. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/literature_review.html
26
Review papers will be graded using the following rubric.
Review Paper Grading Rubric
Components
Introduction
The Body
Conclusion/
Discussion
Literature
Cited
Outstanding
• State your idea (thesis)
• Make it brief (~1/5 of the
paper’s total length)
• Grab the reader's interest
while introducing the topic
• Explain the "big picture"
relevance
• Provide the necessary
background information
• Experimental Evidence:
Describe important results
from recent primary literature
articles and
• Explain how those results
shape our current
understanding of the topic
• Mention the types of
experiments done and their
corresponding data, but do not
repeat the experimental
procedure step for step
• Point out and address any
controversies in the field
• Use figures and/or tables to
present your own synthesis of
the original data or to show
key data taken directly from
the original papers
• Relates the evidence to the
thesis
• Uses quotes sparingly, if at all
• Succinctly summarize your
major points
• Points to major data
supporting the thesis
• Point out the significance of
these results
• Discuss the questions that
remain in the area
• Suggest future research
questions
• Has the appropriate literature
to address the thesis (papers
are on topic and all the
important papers)
• Is complete (necessary
number of references)
Average
Below Average
• States thesis clearly
• Grabs the reader’s interest
• Provides some background
material
• Is not brief
Good
• States thesis but difficult
to understand
• Provides some
background information
• Is lacking a thesis or
main idea
• Does not explain the big
picture
• Lacks appropriate
background information
• Experimental Evidence:
Describe important results
from recent primary literature
articles
• Mention the types of
experiments done and their
corresponding data, but do not
repeat the experimental
procedure step for step
• Use figures and/or tables to
present your own synthesis of
the original data or to show
key data taken directly from
the original papers
• Experimental Evidence:
Describe important
results from recent
primary literature
articles and
• Use figures and/or tables
to present your own
synthesis of the original
data or to show key data
taken directly from the
original papers.
• Uses quotes sparingly
• Relates the evidence to
the thesis
• Describes little
experimental evidence
from the literature
• Does not relate the
papers discussed to the
thesis
• Succinctly summarize your
major points
• Point out the significance of
these results
• Points to major data
supporting the thesis
• Discuss the questions that
remain in the area
• Succinctly summarize
your major points
• Points to major data
supporting the thesis
• Point out the
significance of these
results
• Lacks a coherent
discussion of the points
supporting the thesis
• Has most of the appropriate
literature to address the thesis
(papers are on topic and all the
important papers)
• Is complete (necessary
number of references)
• Has many of the
appropriate literature to
address the thesis
(papers are on topic and
all the important papers)
• Is complete (necessary
number of references)
• Has few of the
appropriate literature to
address the thesis
(papers are on topic and
all the important papers)
• Is incomplete
(necessary number of
references)
27
Grammar
and
mechanics
• Paragraphs well organized
• Sections with logical
organization of paragraphs
(especially introduction,
results and conclusions)
• Few grammatical errors, typos
and misspellings
• Appropriate word selection
• Correct use of scientific terms
• Paragraphs well organized
• Sections with logical
organization of paragraphs
(especially introduction,
results and conclusions)
• Few grammatical errors, typos
and misspellings
• Appropriate word selection
• Correct use of scientific terms
Format
• Follows correct formatting for
paper, including fonts and
margins
• Name and date are displayed
• Citations are in correct format
• Paper is stapled
• Very minor formatting errors
only
• Name and date are displayed
• Citations are in correct format
• Paper is stapled
Overall
Evaluation
28
• Most paragraphs well
organized
• Sections with logical
organization of
paragraphs (especially
introduction, results and
conclusions)
• Several grammatical
errors, typos, and
misspelling may be
present
• Some misappropriate
word usage errors (effect
vs. affect)
• Some misuse of
scientific terms
• Follows correct
formatting for the most
part
• Name and date are
displayed
• Citations are in correct
format for the most part
• Paper is stapled
• Many paragraphs well
organized
• Several grammatical
errors, typos, and
misspelling may be
present
• Fails to meet formatting
guidelines
• Name and/or date are
missing
• Citations in incorrect
format for the most part
• Paper is not stapled
APPENDIX 1: Format of the research paper/laboratory report
Text except as noted taken directly from the Ohio Journal of Science
Changes to instructions made by Wilmington College are in italics
The Ohio Journal of Science Research Reports are those papers which are longer than 2 pages
or contain more than one illustration. Specific length requirements may be set by a professor at
Wilmington College.
All manuscripts will be organized as follows:
Page 1 - Title, Author(s), Running Head, Abstract
Page 2 and remainder, in this order - Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion,
Acknowledgments, Literature Cited, Tables, Figure Legends, Figures.
STYLE. Manuscripts should be typewritten using 1 inch margins on 8.5 x 11 inch paper. Text
should be left-justified using elite print (twelve characters per inch). Manuscript should be
double-spaced throughout, including the title and abstract. Arabic numerals should be used in
preference to words when the number designates anything that can be counted or measured (7
samples, 43 species). One exception to this use is that numerals are not used to begin a sentence
(Twenty-one species were found in . . .). The 2nd exception is when 2 numeric expressions are
adjacent in a sentence. The number easiest to express in words should be spelled out and the
other left in numeric form (The sections were divided into eight 4-acre plots.).
TITLE, AUTHOR(S), AFFILIATION(S). The first page of the manuscript should contain the
title, author(s) name(s), the affiliation of the author(s) at the time the research was carried out, a
shortened title (running head), and the abstract. The title must be typed in upper and lower case
letters as it will appear when typeset. Name(s) of the author(s) should be typed in capital letters
below the title. The address (department, institution, city, state, postal code, country if not USA)
should appear below the name of the author(s). If more than one institution is to be credited, they
should appear in the order of the authors' affiliation. A running head of not more than 38 letters
and spaces should be typed in capital letters between the address and the abstract.
ABSTRACT. The abstract should summarize the main conclusions and any new methods or
procedures critical to the results of the study. It should be 250 words or fewer.
INTRODUCTION. The introduction should describe the knowledge that gave rise to the
question examined by, or the hypothesis posed for the research. A statement of the question
being posed in the study and hypotheses should appear as the last paragraph of the Introduction.
MATERIALS AND METHODS. This section should describe the research design, the
methods and materials used in the research (subjects, their selection, equipment, laboratory or
field procedures), and how the findings were analyzed.
29
RESULTS. The text of the results should be a descriptive narrative of the main findings, of the
reported study. This section should not list tabulated data in text form. Reference to tables and
figures included in this section should be made parenthetically in the text.
DISCUSSION. This section should compare and contrast the data collected in the presented
study with that previously reported in the literature. Unless there are specific reasons to combine
the two, as explained by the author in the letter of transmittal, Results and Discussion should be
two separate sections.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Colleagues and/or sources of financial support to whom thanks are
due for assistance rendered in completion of the research or preparation of the manuscript should
be recognized in this section rather than in the body of the text.
LITERATURE CITED. Please refer to Knisely (2009) and use the Name-Year System
beginning on page 77.
TABLES. Tables must be typed double-spaced, one table to a page, numbered consecutively,
and placed in the manuscript after Literature Cited. Since tables must be individually typeset,
consolidation of data into the smallest number of tables is encouraged. A horizontal double
underline should be made beneath the title of the table, and single underlines should be made the
width of the table below the column headings and at the bottom of the table. Do not use vertical
lines, and do not place horizontal lines in the interior of the table. Footnotes should be used to
clarify possible questions within the table, and should be noted by asterisks, daggers, or other
symbols to avoid confusion with numerical data.
FIGURES. All illustrations are referred to as "Figures" and must be numbered consecutively.
Figures may be photographs, hand-drawn or computer generated drawings in black ink. Each
figure should be identified along the top edge with the name of the author(s) and figure number,
and on the back with name of author(s) and manuscript title. Illustrations other than those
generated by the author(s) must bear permission for use and credit to the originator. ORIGINAL
ARTWORK WILL NOT BE RETURNED UNLESS SPECIFICALLY REQUESTED AT TIME
OF SUBMISSION. Each figure must have a complete legend. The legend should not be placed
on the figure, but should be typed in order, double-spaced, on a separate sheet which precedes
the figures in the manuscript. Figures should be referred to parenthetically in the text, for
example (Fig. 1). The size and proportion of each illustration should be suitable for reduction.
Excessive white space should be avoided. Illustrations will be reduced to one column width (3
and 3/8 inches) or two column width (7 inches) at the discretion of the editor. Lettering should
be done of a size to ensure that it can be read after reduction. On maps and other illustrations
where original size is a concern, a graphic scale should be incorporated into the figure.
FOOTNOTES. Text footnotes should not be used with the following exceptions. A footnote to
the title will be added editorially to state the dates of manuscript submission and revision. A
footnote to name(s) of author(s) may be used to indicate present address different from that at
which the research was done, or to indicate the author to whom inquiries should be directed. All
other material or comments must be incorporated into the text. Literature Cited should not be
inserted as footnotes. Footnotes to tables are permissible, and are encouraged to promote clarity.
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Papers are not acceptable unless the directions above are followed exactly. Any questions which
are not answered by these instructions should be addressed to your professor.
One type-written hard copy and, if requested, one electronic copy (as a Microsoft – Word 2003)
document must be submitted by the due date. If electronic copies are emailed to the professor as
an attachment the file must be named (see page Please see policy on late papers.
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APPENDIX II: Format of the review paper
Text except as noted taken directly Current Opinion in Cell Biology
Changes to instructions made by Wilmington College are in italics
The review
The aim of the manuscript is to review recent articles, with particular emphasis on those articles
published in the past two years. In addition to describing recent trends, you are encouraged to give
your subjective opinion of the topics discussed, although you should not concentrate unduly on
your own research. Your review should be approximately 5000 words (not including references or
reference notes), or number or words requested by the professor, with at least 10 and no more
than 20 (or number of sources requested by the professor) references and, as such, the review is
intended to be a concise view of the field as it is at the moment, rather than a comprehensive
overview. Our audience ranges from student to professor, so articles must be accessible to a wide
readership. Please avoid jargon, but do not oversimplify: be accurate and precise throughout.
Occasionally, unpublished data can be referred to, but only when essential and should never be
used to substantiate any significant point.
Please ensure that the document is typed in the following order in a single document including
tables, boxes and figure legends (12 pt, double-spaced Times New Roman) with numbered pages.
1. Title
The title should be short and enticing (eight words or fewer), and should not contain abbreviations.
Please feel free to suggest your own title. You should include a truncated form of the title (~4
words) that will be used at the top of each page of your article.
2. Author(s)
Please provide the names of all authors in full, including first name. No more than five authors
should be listed (only those who contributed to the actual writing of the manuscript, rather than
members of the laboratory contributing to primary work). Anyone else who contributed to the
article can be thanked in the acknowledgements section.
3. Addresses
Include addresses for all authors, including e-mail addresses, Pyle Center Box #, Wilmington
College, Department of Biology, Wilmington, Ohio 45177.
4. Summary of recent advances
All reviews should be prefaced by a summary of 100-120 words. The summary is important: it
should contain sufficient information for the reader to be able to appreciate the relevance of the full
article when read alone. It should contain a clear statement of the thesis or idea that organizes the
review. Summaries are used by abstracting services and many users of these services read only the
summary. It should include background information and specific examples of recent advances,
rather than promises that a particular subject 'will be discussed' - the scope of the review should
instead appear at the end of the introduction. References should not be included and abbreviations
should be avoided as far as possible.
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5. Introduction
The introduction should be accessible to a wide variety of scientists by avoiding the use of jargon
and concepts not familiar to non-specialists. It should outline the time period covered and the scope
of the review, including the importance of and rationale behind your article. The introduction
should include only a few background references.
6. Main text of review
Use concise, logical subheadings to provide clear links between the different sections and guide the
reader through your review. Please write all abbreviations in full on first use, and use the
abbreviation thereafter. Any algebra should be > 14pt, with variables in italics and vectors in bold.
7. Conclusions
The conclusions section should summarize the topics discussed and describe future directions,
including the author's opinions, as appropriate.
8. Acknowledgements
In addition to any acknowledgement of help in the production of the manuscript, funding bodies
should also be mentioned (please give full names rather than abbreviations), together with any
relevant grant numbers.
9. Ethics in Publishing: General Statement
Ethics The Editor(s) and Publisher of this Journal believe that there are fundamental principles
underlying scholarly or professional publishing. While this may not amount to a formal 'code of
conduct', these fundamental principles with respect to the authors' paper are that the paper should:
i) be the authors' own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere, ii) reflect
the authors' own research and analysis and do so in a truthful and complete manner, iii) properly
credit the meaningful contributions of co-authors and co-researchers, iv) not be submitted to more
than one journal for consideration, and v) be appropriately placed in the context of prior and
existing research. Of equal importance are ethical guidelines dealing with research methods and
research funding, including issues dealing with informed consent, research subject privacy rights,
conflicts of interest, and sources of funding. While it may not be possible to draft a 'code' that
applies adequately to all instances and circumstances, we believe it useful to outline our
expectations of authors and procedures that the Journal will employ in the event of questions
concerning author conduct.
10. References and annotations
The reference list should not be exhaustive - simply alert the reader to the number of sources given
by your professor and that provide the most innovative recent papers and key reviews. Use the
Citation-Sequence System as described in Knisely (2009) on page 82 and Tables 4.5 and 4.6 on
pages 80-81.
11. Figures
Figures should be prepared on separate pages and attached to the end of the submission. Please
think carefully about how to illustrate your article; you are encouraged to include up to four
additional elements in your review (i.e. a combination of Figures, Tables and Boxes). You should
include at least one figure to summarize the main concepts discussed, and all figures should help to
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explain the concepts discussed in the text. All illustrations should be labeled as figures, and figures
should be cited in the main text of the review in numerical order. The figure should have a title, and
the legend should describe the figure in full, without further reference to the main text. All
abbreviations used in the figure and not in the main text should be defined at the end of the figure
legend. More detailed figure submission instructions are found on page 4. Please note that it is the
responsibility of the authors to obtain permission to reproduce copyrighted material (figures that
have been published before) from the original authors and publishers (see also SUBMISSION)
Captions
Ensure that each illustration has a caption. Supply captions separately, not attached to the figure. A
caption should comprise a brief title (not on the figure itself) and a description of the illustration.
Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations
used.
Line drawings
The lettering and symbols, as well as other details, should have proportionate dimensions, so as not
to become illegible or unclear after possible reduction; in general, the figures should be designed
for a reduction factor of two to three. The degree of reduction will be determined by the Publisher.
Illustrations will not be enlarged. Consider the page format of the journal when designing the
illustrations.
Do not use any type of shading on computer-generated illustrations.
12. Tables and boxes
Tables should be prepared on separate pages and attached to the end of the submission. You can
include up to four additional elements to enhance your review (i.e. a combination of Figures,
Tables and Boxes). Tables should be used to tabulate data discussed in further detail in the review.
Boxes should be used for additional explanatory material that, although essential, interrupts the
flow of the text. In addition, you can include a glossary box to describe/define terms or
abbreviations used in your review. Tables and boxes should always be referred to in the main text
of the article and should have an appropriate title. Please use the template in MS Word to create
your tables. All such text boxes will be included in the main text word count, and must be cited in
the text in numerical order.
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