Pseudoreasoning and slanters
Pseudoreasoning = bad arguments
Slanters = devices that attempt to convince by using words that conceal dubious
claims
A. Violating the Rules of Rational Discussion
1. begging the question = an argument that uses a premise that is at least as the conclusion,
using circular reasoning; already assuming as true the claim that is being argued
2. strawman = knocking down someone’s argument by putting words in the other person’s
mouth
3. ad hominem = mistaking the person for the claim or argument
Ÿ Personal attack = ________ is [abusive remark] so we should therefore reject their argument
Ÿ Circumstantial ad hominem = attack on a person because of their condition, group membership
or other circumstance, implying that we should expect them to believe ____ because of this
circumstance
Ÿ Genetic fallacy = because the argument came from _____, it should be rejected
Ÿ Mistaking the person for the claim = appeal to authority
Ÿ Appeal to authority = (Almost) anything that ____ says about ____ is (probably) true so it must
be OK to believe
Ÿ Mistaking the person for the argument = almost any argument that _______ gives about ____ is
bad
Ÿ Phony or pseudorefutation = _____ has done or said _______ in the past, which is inconsistent
with what he or she says now, which shows that the he or she does not believe the conclusion of
his or her argument
Poisoning the well = attack on the person in advance; claiming that _____ is or believes
_______ therefore anything they say should be rejected
B. Too Much Emotion
1. Appeal to negative emotions
Appeal to fear/scare tactics = if the argument uses a premise that says roughly:
You should believe or do _________ if you are afraid of ________
Appeal to anger or indignation if it uses a premise that says, roughly:
You should believe or do _________ if you are mad about what _____ has
done or believes
Appeal to spite/Two wrongs make a right = if it uses a premise that says, roughly:
You should believe or do _________ if you are mad about what _____ has done or believes
and want to get even
2.
3.
Appeal to pity = if it uses a premise that says, roughly:
You should believe or do ________ if you feel sorry for _______
Appeal to good feelings = if it uses a premise that says, roughly:
You should believe or do ________ if it makes you feel good
·
apple-polishing = appeal to vanity that makes you feel good
wishful thinking = a feel-good argument that you use on yourself
C. Concealed Claims
1.
loaded question = question that conceals a dubious claim that should be argued for
rather than assumed
2. Making it sound nasty or nice
Euphemism = a word or phrase that makes something sound better than a neutral
description
· Dysphemism = a word or phrase that makes something sound worse than a neutral
description
3. Downplayers and up-players
· Downplayer = a word or phrase which minimizes the significance of a claim
· Weaseler = a word or phrase gives a way to “weasel” out of claim if challenged
· Up-Player = a word or phrase which exaggerates or the significance of a claim
· Hyperbole = an extreme version of an up-player
4. Where’s the proof?
Proof surrogate (substitute) = a word or phrase that suggests the speaker has a proof but
no proof is offered
· Burden of proof = shifting the burden of proof of an argument in an inappropriate way
away from the one making the claim, who has the burden of proof (rather than the one to
whom it is shifted); placing burden too heavily on one side
5. Innuendo = concealed claim that slyly suggests or insinuates, usually something unpleasant
D. Content Fallacies = using dubious premises in the argument
1.
Appeal to popularity = accept argument because lots of other people do
·
·
·
2.
Appeal to common practice = if (almost) everybody (in this group) does it, then it must be
OK to do
Appeal to common belief = if (almost) everybody (in this group) believes it, then it must
be OK to believe
Peer pressure = urging acceptance of argument because it will win approval of friends or
associates when approval is irrelevant
Subjectivist fallacy = treating an objective claim as if it were subjective or just a matter of
opinion; usually done when someone is unwilling to examine their own beliefs or engage in
dialogue
3. False dilemma = the use of any “or” claim that is false or dubious; assuming there are only two
alternatives when there may be many
·
Drawing the line (line drawing fallacy) = claiming that if you can’t make this difference
precise, there is no difference
Perfectionist fallacy = claiming that if the argument is not perfect, you should reject it
4. Slippery slope = an argument that uses a chain of conditionals, some or many of which are false
or dubious