IB Psychology
Mr. Detjen
Student Responses to Developmental Psychology Option LOs
General Learning Outcomes
LO1: Discuss to what extent biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors influence human development
LO2: Evaluate psychological research (studies and/or theories) relevant to developmental psychology.
A, Cognitive Development
LO3: Evaluate theories of cognitive development.
***Explain and Evaluate Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development***
(Only Piaget)
Hannah
Developmental psychology focuses on the idea of development as a life-long process of change. Developmental
psychologists aim to figure out how and why people change over time. It is commonly theorized that early experiences
influence behaviors seen further ahead in life. Jean Piaget is one of the luminaries well known in the developmental
psychological field. Piaget focused on the genetics behind epistemology – the branch of philosophy concerned with the
nature and scope of knowledge.
Piaget made four key assumptions: intelligence is genetically based and develops in stages, children are not
passive receivers of knowledge, children think qualitatively difference than adults, and individuals construct schemas to
view the world. It was Piaget’s idea that individuals were born with innate schemas (i.e. sucking & grasping) that develop
throughout the years. This is also referred to as adaptation which Piaget split into two subfields. One sub field is
assimilation where a new experience that an infant goes through can fit into an existing schema. The other subfield is
accommodation where new events do not fit into any existing schemas and thus the schemas may be modified or a new
schema may form as a result.
Piaget believed that an individual will go through four stages in his or her lifetime. These four stages comprise
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. The four stages include: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. The sensorimotor stage – believed to take place within zero to two years of life – is when the
individual experiences the world through their senses and actions (i.e. looking, touching, mouthing, grasping). This stage
is also characteristic of egocentrism – the individual knows nothing but himself – and a lack of object permanence – if
they cannot see it, it does not exist. The second stage, preoperational, occurs between two to six or seven years of age. In
this stage, individuals represent objects or situations with words and images bit lack logical reasoning. This stage is
characterized by pretend play, complete egocentrism, language development, and centration – they can only focus on one
thing at a time. Also in this stage, a lack of conservation has been observed; children think an object completely changes if
merely its appearance is the only thing changed. The third stage, concrete operational, occurs from ages six or seven to
eleven years. Individuals in this stage are able to think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies, and
perform arithmetical operations. The individuals also do not seem to lack conservation and can now identify an object as
the same even though its appearance has changed. Lastly, the formal operational stage begins around age twelve and goes
on from there. In this stage the individuals are able to partake in abstract reasoning, have potential for mature moral
reasoning, and can logically think about “what if…” situations.
There are both positive and negative comments on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. On one hand, Piaget
produced the first comprehensive theory of cognitive development and linking biological maturation to cognitive
development. It was also agreed with that children are not passive learners and instead take initiative, in their own way, to
actively learn about themselves and their environment. However, it was believed that Piaget’s sample size was too small
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and potentially biased since he used his own children in a number of his studies. Also, the research failed to distinguish
between competence and performance. Piaget was unable to explain in great detail why each stage occurred at the time it
did. The role of social development was underestimated as well as cognitive abilities, but formal abilities were
overestimated. It was even thought that the methods were too formal for children.
Megan
Jean Piaget was a constructionist psychologist. This means he believes that cognitive development is dependent upon how
an individual interacts with the social and physical world. He developed the first comprehensive theory of childhood
development. His theory consists of four stages, ranging from infancy to adulthood. Each stage has important
developments that Piaget considered landmarks in a person’s development, such as the ability to think abstractly, a skill
he believed was acquired in adulthood.
The first stage, Sensorimotor, spans from 02 years of age. During this stage, knowledge develop as a result of sensations
and actions. Also, infants lack the concept of object permanence until they are about 8 months old, according to Piaget.
Object permanence is the idea that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen, like, peek a boo, for
example. An infant who has yet to develop object permanence will believe that your face
disappears into thin air when you cover it with your hands and you can no longer see it.
The second stage is the Preoperational which is from ages 27. This is when the child learns to speak and there is an
increase in the use of symbolic thought and selfawareness, but dominated, however, by the visual appearance of things.
The child’s understanding is based on egocentricism;the child can only see the world from his or her own viewpoint. The
child also lacks the concept of conservation: the ability to understand that physical properties remain the same even if the
object’s appearance has changed.
The concrete operational stage comes next and lasts from age 7 to age 12. Here logical reasoning based on real objects
that can be manipulated develops and an understanding of conservation emerges. The fourth and final stage is the formal
operational stage which extends from age 12 onto adulthood. This is when the ability to use abstract reasoning and logic
matures.
Some strengths of his theory are: it was the first comprehensive theory for childhood development, it has helped reform
education and the idea of a child, many of his concepts have been tested empirically, so his theory is not entirely
historical, and he suggested inventive research. His theory is limited, however, in that he underestimated the role of social
learning, and a child’s cognitive capabilites, cultural bias exists in his work, and his sample size was too small, which
made it difficult to generalize his findings.
Jolie
Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, believed that children develop their cognitive skills in stages
and through schemas. As a child develops mentally, his/her schemas also develop. Sometimes new events, objects, or
people can be fitted into already existing schemas (assimilation), but other times schemas are needed to be modified or
created in order to accommodate new events the child encounters.
According to Piaget, there are four stages during cognitive development as a result of maturation and the
environment. Children from 0-2 years old are in their first stage of development (sensory motor), in which they have no
formal schemas and only know the world through their senses and motors. Egocentricism is found in this stage as the
children all think of themselves as the center of the world. They also believe that if they cannot see an object, that means
the object no longer exist. In the pre-operational stage (2-7 years old), children cannot depend on internal mental rules,
focus only on one object or one aspect at a time (centration), and classifies objects into the same group based on shape or
color (classification limitation). They also begin to have imaginary friends. When children reach concrete operational
stage (7-11 years old), they start to develop rules or schemas about real objects in real world and learn the idea that object
tend to stay the same even if its shape changes. In the formal operational stage (11 and older), they can think abstractly
and manipulate ideas and solve problems without the need of physical objects.
Piaget’s theory of how cognition develops in children contributes significantly to our understanding of mental
development. Over the years, Piaget also modifies his theory in response to criticism and is the first to investigate whether
maturation is based on biological factors. However, in his studies, his sample size is rather small, making it hard to
generalize to the wider population and other culture, and his methods are deemed too formal for children. Piaget is also
criticized for failing to distinguish between competence and performance in his research and for underestimating the role
of language and social development in his theory.
Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky focused his cognitive development more on social environment and language. He
believes that children can gain knowledge through their culture and through the interaction they have with other people.
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Observation of their own culture can teach them the social norms in their society. Children also acquire knowledge
through imitation, instructions, and collaborative learning. In addition, language is also the medium for adults to transmit
knowledge to children, and it develops in 3 stages. Pre-intellectual or social speech takes place when children are from 0 –
3 years old, in which their thoughts are not constructed with language and they use speech to make certain changes. From
age 3 – 7, children experience egocentric speech, in which language controls behavior when it is spoken out loud.
Children older than 7 years old is in the final stage known as inner speech, in which they use language silently to think
and publicly to communicate out loud. Zone of proximal development is the concept that refers to the difference between
what children can do on their own and what they can do with outside help, and scaffolding is the idea that children would
accomplish more if they have assistance from others than if they were to do it by themselves. Vygotsky’s theory of
cognitive development in children is criticized for being rather vague about social influence and for being too focused on
social interaction. It nonetheless is a useful concept in teaching and in predicting a child’s ability in class.
Imani
Jean Piaget used a viewpoint of biology and philosophy and looked at development through a genetic and
biological context. He had four assumptions: intelligence is genetically and biologically based, children are curious and
motivated to seek out their own information and that they are not passive in learning, children think qualitatively different
than adults, and lastly that individuals construct their own view of the world through their own schemas. In his experiment
to test his assumptions and theories Paiget used his own children, which gave him the advantage of first hand experience
but the disadvantage of lacking scientific validity. In Paiget’s theory he also had two adaptations to the statement that all
knowledge develops through schemas. The first being assimilation; a process that occurs when new events can be fitted
into existing events, meaning the consolidation of schemas and those schemas being supported and reinforced. The second
adaptation is accommodation; the process when new events do not fit into existing schemas, so then new schemas are
created.
Paigets main theory of development is with cognitive development. In his main theory Paiget says that
development happens through stages; development is like a staircase being that you have to finish and complete one step
(or stage) before advancing to the next. The first stage is the sensorimotor stage that happens from newborns to two years
old. In this stage babies experience the world through their senses and actions, here the babies have no real sense of self
apart from world and they lack the idea of object permanence, which as the baby grows then becomes a key development.
The second stage is the preoperational stage, which happens from two years of age to about six or seven; the child learns
of words and images but lack object and reasoning. A key development in the second stage is the children began to have
pretend play, egocentrism and language development, what children here lack is a classification limitation though. The
third stage is the concrete operational stage, which happens from six or seven to about eleven years of age. In this stage
the child begins to think logically about concrete events, can grasp concrete analogies and perform arithmetical
operations, key developments in this stage is conservation and mathematical transformations. The last stage of Paigets
theory is the formal operational stage from eleven on; this is where the person develops abstract thinking and the key
development is abstract logic and potential for moral reasoning.
Evaluation of Paigets theory and experiment is that he is the first person to had created a comprehensive theory
of child development, but there was still much criticism. It was said that Paiget’s whole theory had a negative connotation,
he focused on what the children could not do instead of what they could do and that his experiments were to formal and
unfamiliar. For example in the Paiget and Inhelder 1956 study he asked children to identify with unfamiliar surrounds
such as mountains and then asked what they saw through a doll on the opposite side of the mountains perspective, the
results were that the children were confused on what the doll saw. But in Hughe’s 1975 study results showed that the
children easily hid the boy doll behind buildings from the police dolls, showing that they could view the police doll’s
perspective in now being able to view the boy doll. More criticism of the theory is that it used such a small sample so it
was a degree of hazardous to generalize all the information. Paiget also underestimated language, underestimated social
development, underestimated cognitive abilities in certain ages and it was too vivid, not flexible enough and did not have
enough details for each stage.
Karl
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who believed that maturation as well as the social environment is important
in cognitive development. He thought that interaction with the environment changes people, and cognitive development is
dependent on how the individual child interacts with the social and physical world. People know this as the constructionist
approach. Piaget began his studies by observing his own children and developed a clinical interview to provide insight
into the child’s own judgements.
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Piaget said that knowledge consists of cognitive structures known as schemas which are mental representations of
how to deal with the world. He suggested that children actively construct knowledge and their schemas are modified
through what Piaget called adaptation. He stated that adaptation has two forms: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is when new information is integrated into existing schemas while accommodation is when existing
cognitive schemas are altered to match new experiences.
Children’s intelligence progresses through a series of cognitive stages, with different qualities at each stage
according to Piaget. He called the stages sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The
sensorimotor stage is from birth to age 2 in which the child learns through movements and sensations. At around eight
months the child can develop object permanence which is the idea that objects continue to exist even when they can no
longer be seen; this explains the game “peek-a-boo”. The pre-operational stage is from age 2-7 where the child learns to
speak but cannot transfer knowledge from one situation to another. The child can only view the world from his or her own
viewpoint, which is the idea of egocentrism, according to Piaget. In the concrete operational stage which occurs from age
7 to 12, many children begin problem solving and dealing with concrete tasks. And the final stage is the formal
operational stage, starting after age 12. By the end of this stage, adults and adolescents can use abstract and formal logic.
They are able to manipulate ideas and concepts, and can also think hypothetically.
Kaliice
Developmental psychology is the study of how people change over time. Within this topic many psychologist
have come up with theories on how people develop either cognitively or biologically.
Jean Piaget developed a theory as to how people develop on a cognitive level. Cognitive development is how
cognitive processes change over time; why and how they change. Piaget focused on the genetic context and had for main
factors that he focused on; intelligences are under genetic control, children are not passive in reserves of knowledge,
children not only think different than adults but they do on a quantitative level, and individuals create their own view of
the world through schemas.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development was divided into stages based on ages. The first stage in his theory was
the Sensorimotor, which takes place between the ages of zero to two. During this stage a child has no former schema of
anything and only knows the world through senses. The next stage is the preoperational, which takes place between ages
two and seven. In this stage the child starts representing things with words and images, but lack logical reasoning. The
child starts to pretend play, show egocentrism and language development. The concrete operational stage happens
between the ages of seven to eleven. Logical thinking develops about concrete evidence and the child starts to grasps
concrete analogies and performing math operations. The last stage is the formal operational, which is from age twelve on
up. During this stage abstract thinking and reasoning develops.
Piaget’s theory created the first theory on child development. He conducted a lot of research and modified his
theory as needed. It was also the first study of biological with cognitive development. Even with all these strengths, there
were some limitations and criticisms. One was that the methods that he used were too formal for children. The small
sample sizes that he used made it hard to generalize the results. Piaget also failed to tell the difference between biological
readinesses. After other studies it was showed that he underestimated social and cognitive development of children, but
overestimated their formal ability.
Jarren
Jean Piaget believed maturation and social environment are important in cognitive development and that this
development is dependent upon how each individual child interacts with the world. He suggested that children use
strategies in thinking and problem solving that is reflective of different stages of cognitive development. He studied his
own four children through their stages of life to which he developed his theory with two main ideas, the first being that
schemas play a large role in the development of knowledge. It is in these schemas that knowledge grows and changes in
two different ways–assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the idea that new info can be integrated into existing
cognitive schemas. For example, a young child seeing a cow for the first time and exclaiming “doggy!” is corrected and
told that it’s actually a cow which creates a new schema. Finally, accommodation occurs when existing schemas have to
be altered because they no longer match new experiences. For example, young child seeing a cow for the first time, calls it
“doggy,” and therefore the doggy schema is altered and the new schema “cow” is created.
The second big idea that Piaget introduced was a set of four developmental stages for intelligence–sensorimotor,
pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage occurs between birth and the first
two years of life and is based around learning through movement and sensation. Object permanence, the idea that objects
continue to exist even after they can longer be seen, is developed in this stage. From the ages of two to seven, language,
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the ability to think symbolically, and egocentrism (can really only see world from their point) develop in the preoperational stage; however, during this time, understanding the concept of conversation is still an issue. During the
concrete operational stage, ages seven to twelve, problem solving becomes an option and the use of logic is increased.
Finally, the formal operational stage, which occurs from twelve years and beyond, is marked by the use of formal, abstract
thought.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development was new for its period being the first to look at childhood cognitive
development and the first to look into the biological affects on cognitive development. His work undoubtedly paved the
way for research into this area of psychology; however, there are cons to his theory. It’s argued that Piaget underestimated
cognitive capabilities of children. Baillargeon and DeVos (1991) proved this argument through research that showed
object permanence occurs earlier than Piaget suggested. Most importantly, Piaget observed only four children, all of
which were his children; therefore, the size of his sample was very small. It must be asked whether or not his findings can
be generalized and applied to a larger population.
Princess
Jean Piaget was a psychologist formed two types of adaptation. Assimilation is the process that occurs when new events
can be fit into existing schema that a child has. It's a consolidation of existing knowledge. The schema receives support.
Accommodation is the process in which an existing schema reviewed reinforcement or correction.
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. There are four stages: sensorimotor, preperational, concrete
operational and the formal operational stage. During the first stage, sensorimotor, the child is between the ages zero to
two. The infant has no formal schema for either the world or itself. He/she knows the world through senses and actions.
Object permanence is present, which basically means if an object is out of the infant's sight, he/she forgets about it. It does
not exist to them any longer if they cannot see it. The second stage, preperational, occurs when I child is between the ages
2 to 7. During this stage, the child begins representing things with words and images. However, the child lacks logical
reasoning. The child possesses pretend play, egocentrism and language development. He/she is still obsessed with
appearance of objects, it lacks conservation. Houghs did a policeman doll study using sample participants ages 3 to 5.
90% of the children gave the correct answers. During the concrete operational stage, which is the third, children are rages
7 to 11. This is when the child develops schemas. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, analogies and
performing arithmetical operations. This stage is when the child uses conservation and mathematical transformations.
Lastly, the formal operational stage is when a child is the age 11 and up. The child uses abstract reasoning, abstract logic
and has potential for mature moral reasoning.
Alyssa
Cognitive development is how cognitive processes change over time. Jean Piaget held four different stages in his
cognitive developmental theory, these stages explain why he thinks these processes change. These stages differ because of
the change of cognitive ability during age. The four stages include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, the
concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage.
In the sensorimotor stage the ages that are highlighted are ages between 0 and 2. In this stage a child has no former
schemas to organize the world around them. The child only understands the world through his or her senses, hearing,
touching, sight. Egocentrism, the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view, is a characteristic
children hold in this stage
The next stage in Piaget’s developmental theory is the preoperational stage which highlight the ages between 2and 7.
In this stage children lack logical reasoning. They are able to represent things with words and images. Egocentrism is a
characteristic children hold in this stage. During this stage children begin to develop language.
The third stage of in the theory is the concrete operational stage which highlights the ages between 7 and 11. The
children in this stage are able to think logically about concrete events and grasp concrete analogies and performing
mathematical operations. A characteristic in this stage is conservation.
The last stage of the theory is the formal operational stage. The ages in this stage are 12 and over. In this stage people
are able to use abstract reasoning. The characteristic in this stage include abstract logic and mature moral reasoning.
The strengths of Piaget’s developmental theory include it being the first theory on cognitive development, replicable, and
it highlights biological and cognitive development. The limitations include the small sample used, making it hard to
generalize, vagueness of stages, and the underestimation of social development, roles of language, and cognitive
development.
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Taylor
Cognitive development primary focus is on how cognitive processes change over time. Researchers question how
cognitive processes account for behaviors. This question poses the nature verses nurture scenario. The nature aspect
proposes that biological factors such as genetic predisposition play a role in cognitive development. The nurture aspect
proposes that environmental factors such as diet, parenting, and culture education play a role in cognitive development.
Jean Piaget focused his works around biological and philosophical means; genetic context was his focus for
philosophical questions. Piaget made four general claims: intelligence is genetically based; children aren’t passive but are
curious and should be considered naïve psychologist; children think qualitatively different; and individuals construct
frameworks of the world based on schemas. Jean Piaget argued that schemas order our thinking and are the bases of
cognitive development. According to Piaget, schemas are innate at birth, undergo adaptation processes, and construct new
knowledge from experience. Assimilation is an adaptation process that fits new events into a preexisting schema.
Accommodation is an adaptation process that accepts or rejects new knowledge; new knowledge does not fit into
preexisting schemas.
In 1956, Piaget and Inhelder conducted the three mountain experiment. During this experiment four year olds
were shown mountains on a screen. In 1975, Hughes conducted a policemen doll study using children between the ages of
3 ½ and 5. These two studies contributed to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Piaget proposed that there are four
stages during cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete stage, and the formal stage.
During the sensorimotor stage—between the ages of 0 and 2—there is no formal schema and the only view of the
world is through an individual’s senses and actions. Egocentrism is the common during this stage in children (i.e. infants
act as though they are the center of the world). There is a lack of object permanence during the preoperational stage—
between the ages of 2 and 7. If the object is not within the sight, the object is considered out of mind. During this stage
there is still a great dependency on external existence and not internal existence. Between the ages of seven and eleven—
the concrete stage—the ability or skill to make logical reasoning begins to develop. By the age of eleven and beyond, an
individual develops the ability or skill to make abstract reasoning.
Three primary strengths of Piaget’s theory are that it was the first comprehensive study of child development; it is
widely accepted across cultures; and that children are naïve psychologist. However there are many limitations to Piaget’s
theory. Piaget is often criticized the proposed ages for each stage; Hughes’ study showed that Piaget’s methods were too
formal for children. Due to the small sample sizes, generalization is not possible. Piaget failed to test competence verses
performance; also failing to consider the cognitive motivation factors. Piaget underestimated language and social
environment in his studies. However, Piaget overestimated formal ability.
Hunter (L-s/b theories, not just Piaget)
Piaget's theory on cognitive development was pretty much based on the way new schemas come about in human beings.
Adaptation is what Piaget called a child's first experiences. These experiences are based on a few simple schemas like
reaching. These schemas are modified as a result of experience. Two forms of adaptation in Piaget's theory are
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when new info can be integrated into a schema that is already present.
When accommodation happens, it means that schemas have to be changed because the experiences associated with them
no longer apply to the new experiences being had.
Another thing about Piaget's theory was his 4 cognitive stages at which a child's intelligence progresses. These stages
were said to be universal which means they applied to all humans. These stages described the learning processes and the
changes in logic. These stages are called sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and lastly formal
operational. In the sensorimotor stage which is between birth and 2 years old, the child learns through movements and
sensations. For example, simply seeing, touching, and hearing. At about 8 months, children develop object performance
which is the idea that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen. The second stage, pre-operational, is
between the ages of 2 and 7. Children are usually learning how to speak at the beginning of this stage. Children begin to
be able to form small ideas that are limited to about one image or object at a time. In Piaget's theory, he says that a child's
understanding of the world is based on egocentrism which means that children can only see the world from his/her view.
This was a cognitive limitation in Piaget's mind because children aren't able to see anything from another's viewpoint and
doesn't understand that someone may see something differently. Another limitation in this stage is the fact that whatever
the child is thinking is only based on the way things look. In this stage, conservation is when children don't understand
that if an object is changed, the physical properties will remain the same. The third stage, concrete operational, is between
the ages of 7 and 12. This is when children begin using logic to solve problems and finally understanding conservation.
Lastly, the operational stage at age 12 is the ability to use abstract reasoning and logic.
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___________________ Theories ______________________
Kaliice
Developmental psychology is the study of how people change over time. Within this topic many psychologist
have come up with theories on how people develop either cognitively or biologically.
Jean Piaget developed a theory as to how people develop on a cognitive level. Cognitive development is how
cognitive processes change over time; why and how they change. Piaget focused on the genetic context and had for main
factors that he focused on; intelligences are under genetic control, children are not passive in reserves of knowledge,
children not only think different than adults but they do on a quantitative level, and individuals create their own view of
the world through schemas.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development was divided into stages based on ages. The first stage in his theory was
the Sensorimotor, which takes place between the ages of zero to two. During this stage a child has no former schema of
anything and only knows the world through senses. The next stage is the preoperational, which takes place between ages
two and seven. In this stage the child starts representing things with words and images, but lack logical reasoning. The
child starts to pretend play, show egocentrism and language development. The concrete operational stage happens
between the ages of seven to eleven. Logical thinking develops about concrete evidence and the child starts to grasps
concrete analogies and performing math operations. The last stage is the formal operational, which is from age twelve on
up. During this stage abstract thinking and reasoning develops.
Lev Vygotsky was another psychologist that came up with a theory of cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, his
focus was on how children play and socialize as well as their language development. According to Vygostsky, a child
begins to interact with the world through actions and society puts meaning to the actions. This happens through social
interaction where language begins to develop.
His Sociocultural Theory of Development consists of three stages for speech development. The first was preintellectual speech stage that happens between two and three. During this stage the thought for social change develops. In
the egocentric speech stage, between the ages of three to seven, the child uses speech for behavior and speaks out loud.
The inner speech stage, which is that last one and happens at the seven and up, the child speaks internally and uses speech
for social communication.
He also described the concept of zone of proximal development. This was the key factor to his theory. It described
both the present level of development and the potential level of development. The present level of development is what
the child is capable of doing without help, while the potential level is what the child could potentially be capable of doing
with help.
Piaget’s theory created the first theory on child development. He conducted a lot of research and modified his
theory as needed. It was also the first study of biological with cognitive development. Even with all these strengths, there
were some limitations and criticisms. One was that the methods that he used were too formal for children. The small
sample sizes that he used made it hard to generalize the results. Piaget also failed to tell the difference between biological
readinesses. After other studies it was showed that he underestimated social and cognitive development of children, but
overestimated their formal ability.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasized at aspect of social interaction on cognitive development, which was something the
Piaget lacked. He was however criticized for focusing too much on this and because his explanations were thought to be
too broad. The issue broadness could be due to the fact that he died at such a young age that he was never able to modify
his theory. Vygotsky’s theory was supported by research done by Conner in 1997 and Behern in 1992.
Karl
Piaget said that knowledge consists of cognitive structures known as schemas which are mental representations of how to
deal with the world. He suggested that children actively construct knowledge and their schemas are modified through
what Piaget called adaptation. He stated that adaptation has two forms: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is
when new information is integrated into existing schemas while accommodation is when existing cognitive schemas are
altered to match new experiences.
Children’s intelligence progresses through a series of cognitive stages, with different qualities at each stage
according to Piaget. He called the stages sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The
sensorimotor stage is from birth to age 2 in which the child learns through movements and sensations. The pre-operational
stage is from age 2-7 where the child learns to speak but cannot transfer knowledge from one situation to another. The
child can only view the world from his or her own viewpoint, which is the idea of egocentrism, according to Piaget. In the
concrete operational stage which occurs from age 7 to 12, many children begin problem solving and dealing with concrete
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tasks. And the final stage is the formal operational stage, starting after age 12. By the end of this stage, adults and
adolescents can use abstract and formal logic.
While Vygotsky on the other hand was a Russian psychologist who argued that it is not possible to describe the
process by which children acquire knowledge without taking into account the child’s social environment or culture. His
sociocultural theory suggest that a child’s cognitive development is based on interaction with other people and cultural
tools. Cultural tools are understood as the tools used in culture. Vygotsky believed knowledge is transfered through
imitation, instructions, or collaborative learning.
One important concept that Vygotsky introduced was zone proximal development, which is the difference
between what a child can do on his/her own and what he or she can accomplish with help. While scaffolding is the idea
that a child can increase in competence if he or she receives assistance to perform a task that is beyond their level. Both
Piaget and Vygotsky agreed that children actively construct knowledge and that they learn best if knowledge is related to
already know abilities. Vygotsky also argued that most of what a child learns comes from the culture that the child lives
in. He suggested cooperative learning instead of child-centered learning.
Princess
This response will evaluate two theories of cognitive development, from Piaget and Vygotsky.
Jean Piajet was a psychologist formed two types of adaptation. Assimilation is the process that occurs when new
events can be fit into existing schema that a child has. It's a consolidation of existing knowledge. The schema receives
support. Accommodation is the process in which an existing schema reviewed reinforcement or correction.
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. There are four stages: sensorimotor, preperational,
concrete operational and the formal operational stage. During the first stage, sensorimotor, the child is between the ages
zero to two. The infant has no formal schema for either the world or itself. He/she knows the world through senses and
actions. Object permanence is present, which basically means if an object is out of the infant's sight, he/she forgets about
it. It does not exist to them any longer if they cannot see it. The second stage, preperational, occurs when I child is
between the ages 2 to 7. During this stage, the child begins representing things with words and images. However, the child
lacks logical reasoning. The child possesses pretend play, egocentrism and language development. He/she is still obsessed
with appearance of objects, it lacks conservation. Houghs did a policeman doll study using sample participants ages 3 to
5. 90% of the children gave the correct answers. During the concrete operational stage, which is the third, children are
rages 7 to 11. This is when the child develops schemas. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, analogies
and performing arithmetical operations. This stage is when the child uses conservation and mathematical transformations.
Lastly, the formal operational stage is when a child is the age 11 and up. The child uses abstract reasoning, abstract logic
and has potential for mature moral reasoning.
Piaget's theory had a large amount if research and had been modified. He was the first person to study biological
aspects along with cognitive development. There are limitations, however. The methods that he used were too formal for
children. His sample sizes were small., therefore they cannot always be generalized. The children's cognitive development
was underestimated, as well as the language role.
Lev Vygotsky developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Vygotsky emphasized social
interaction. He focused on the way children play and socialize, as well as their development. He focused on the
mechanism of development, excluding distinguishable developmental stages. Mediation is a key concept of this theory.
Mediation means that human beings purposefully interpose tools between them and their environment, in order to modify
it and obtain benefits. A Vygotsky child makes sense if the world by nature, the environment. This differs from the
Piagetian child, who makes sense of the world by nature, biology.
There are three stages of Vygotsky's theory: pre-intellectual pre-natal speech, egocentric speech and inner speech.
Social interaction, culture and language were researched. The pre-intellectual pre-natal speech stage occurs when a child
is between the ages if two and three. During this stage they develop thought for social change. The second stage,
egocentric speech, occurs when a child is between the age of three and seven. The child begins to speak out loud. Lastly,
the inner speech stage occurs when the child is seven and older. This is when the child uses speech internally to think to
themselves. The child also uses it for social communication.
He has been criticized for focusing too much in social interaction. His descriptions were too general. He lack
empirical support. If he lived longer, he would have been able to further develop his theory.
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Alyssa
Cognitive development is the development of intelligence, conscious thought, and problem-solving ability that
begins in infancy. There are social and environmental variables that may affect cognitive variables including, dieting and
parenting.
Diet is important environmental variable to cognitive development even before a child is born. Hibbeln et al.
(2007) compared two groups of women: those who consumed high levels of omega- 3 fatty acids and those consumed low
levels of omega-3 fatty acids. They found the mothers that had a low seafood intake during pregnancy had children had
lower motor skills, lower social development, and lower communication skills than the children of mothers who
consumed high levels of seafood.
The effects of diet were shown in the FRAC, Food Research Action Center,(2010) study. They found that
children who skip breakfast have increased errors and have a slower memory recall. Children who face hunger have lower
math scores more likely to be absent, tardy, and have more behavioral problems than others. Children who are
undernourished because of skipping breakfast have lower scores on cognitive tests. Also, teens experiencing hunger are
more likely to be suspended from school, have difficulty getting along with other children, and have no friends.
The Michigan Department of Education (2001) argued that a child’s academic achievement and social adjustment
are based on parent expectations. They found that parents of high-achieving students set higher standards for their
children’s educational activities than parents of low-achieving students.
Chuck
Two scientists who developed theories of cognitive development were Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Both of these men
had their own separate theories, however they both agreed that children build knowledge and that knowledge is related to
the things they are able to do. In terms of cognitive development, Piaget believed that social environment and maturation
were very important. He believe that a child’s interaction with the environment change how you developed. Piaget, who
had a constructionists approach, implied that a child’s different stages of development reflected how they solved
problems. After performing clinical interviews on his children, Piaget concluded that knowledge is based on schemas, and
when your knowledge changes, so do your schemas. This theory of genetic epistemology provided information on how
theories emerged. This theory proposed that when a child gained knowledge, or a schema, he would retain that schema
until something challenged that schema. That schema would then accommodate or adapt to the new knowledge. Piaget
also theorized that children developed in different stages. The first stage was the sensorimotor stage. In this stage, learning
is based through movement and sensation. In the next stage, the pre-operational stage, language and the ability to think
symbolically is developed. In the concrete operational stage, problem solving skills and logic thinking increase. Finally,
the formal operational stage is when the child begins to use formal abstract thought. Piaget’s theory set the path for much
more research into cognition and development. On the other hand, Piaget’s theory was criticized for underestimating the
capability of child and their development, possibly saying that cognitive characteristics occur later than they actually do.
In terms of Vygotsky’s research, Vygotsky firmly believed that cognitive development and social environment were
strongly related. Vygotsky’s theory was sociocultural, and it theorized that children cognitively developed with the help of
social interaction and cultural knowledge; claiming that knowledge is gained by imitation or observation. Vygotsky
brought up that a child can only do so much on his own and can gain much more knowledge when assisted with a task, or
scaffolding. The line between a child’s ability to do something on his own and when he needs help is called the zone of
proximal development. Vygotsky’s theory paved ways in the classroom, opening minds about scaffolding and when to
help a student. However, there was a lack of empirical support and his theory was hard to test for inner speech.
Dominique
Cognitive development is a field of psychological study focusing on child development in relation to information
processing, language learning, and other brain processes. There are two luminaries of this field study Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky whom both developed theories that have been the basis for the developmental theories in modern psychology.
Piaget and Vygotsky approached the this subject in two different ways which then led to the creation of contrasting
theories.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and epistemologist and believed that developmental psychology should be
broken up into stages based on the experimental test he conducted using his own children. He developed a theory of
cognitive development that combined with his epistemological views became know as genetic epistemology which, broke
up child development into stages. Upon creating his theory, Piaget had four components to his thought process; he
believed that intelligence has a genetic base, children are curious, children think differently from adults, people construct
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their own view of world. With these conceptual component he then formed he constructed various tests that he use
conduct on his children in order to test his initial thoughts.
One of his main studies was the mountain test; using a mountain range scenery he would ask children to describe
what they saw. While this first task was accomplished with ease, when asked to describe the scenery from the point of
view of another child on the side of the scene the test subject couldn’t. It was from this study and others like it that Piaget
was able to take the data he collected to create the four stages of development. These stages used data from his many
studies to divide up how human development cognitively in relation to age.
The four stage Piaget created explain cognitive development from birth into adult hood in order to define the
difference between age groups and the cognitive abilities they have at specific points. The first stage called the sensor
motor stage ranged from birth to age to two and according to Piaget, infants only know the world through the sense;
cognition beyond what can be seen, heard, smelled, touched, and or tasted is not possible. In the Preoperational Stage
children from two to seven now obtain what is known as object permanence; the definition of which is that a child retains
that a object still exists outside of their own sight or touch. Children at this age are also, know to be egocentric in nature
which, means that they cannot view their environment from anyone else’s point of view but their own. The next stage is
the concrete operational stage from age seven to eleven years of age in which logical thought beings to develop and
egocentrism begins to dissipate. Finally, there is the formal operational stage from age twelve into adulthood in which
egocentrism has dissipated and abstract complex thought can be achieved.
However Piaget’s theories were not wholly excepted by the psychological community. Many have criticized his
theory as being unreliable because of the very experimental and complex nature of the tests he used to gather data. Piaget
also, generalized groups of people as having standard levels of abilities when, within a large group of people there are
various factors that can change how they develop. Some also, believe that he regretted to include in his study the affect
language can have on learning and cognitive development which is precisely what Lev Vygotsky set out to theorize.
Lev Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist is who unlike Piaget studied the importance of language in cognitive
development. He believed that children communicate and learn through language and from a very young age children use
parts of language to create change. Not unlike Piaget, Vygotsky also had stage of development in relation to language.
The first is the Pre-Intellectual Stage which, according to Vygotsky is from age one to three in which infants use nonsense phonemes as a way to communicate and produce a desired change in their environment. The second is the
egocentric stage from ages three to seven in which, actual grammatical phrases are formed and spoken out loud. However,
the nature of most of this language is self-centered and used to produce change that is only beneficial to oneself and or,
pertaining to one’s own view of the world. The third and final stage is the Inner speech stage in which, children age seven
and up can now apply language internally to conduct abstract and logical thought.
Emily
Jean Piaget heavily studied cognitive development. He thought that maturity and one’s social environment played a
crucial role on how each person interacts in the world. Piaget used his four children for testing and studied their cognitive
development and the different stages of it that they went through because he believed that these stages were shown in their
thinking and problem solving. While studying his children he developed two main points: schemas play a big role in the
development of knowledge and that there are four developmental stages for intelligence. Through schemas our knowledge
base grows and changes through assimilation dn accommodation. Assimilation is when new information is integrated into
existing cognitive schemas. Accommodation is when existing schemas have to be altered because they don’t match new
experiences anymore. The four developmental stages of intelligence are sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete
operational, and formal operational. The sensorimotor stage happens in people between birth and 2 years of age and is
based around learning through movement and sensation. This is the time in which object permanence develops which is
the idea that even when an object can’t be seen it still exists. The pre-operational stage occurs between the ages of 2 and 7
and is where language, the ability to think symbolically, and egocentrism, which is when an individual can only see the
world from their point of view, develop. During this stage the concept of conversation is not fully grasped. The concrete
operational stage occurs between the ages of 7 to 12 and it is when problem solving is possible and the use of logic
increases. The formal operational stage occurs from 12 and older and is noted for using formal and abstract thought.
Lev Vygetrky was interested in the sociocultural theory of cognition. He focused on social interaction, culture,
and language in a child. Vygetrky studied elementary functions which can only be learned through the influence of
culture. Elementary functions place an importance of language development in cognition. When language becomes
internalized it combines with thought and that’s how a person is developed. There are 3 stages to language processing.
The first stage is pre-intellectual and social speech (0-3 years old). In this stage, thought isn’t used to create language but
rather to create change. The second stage is ego-centric speech (3-7 years old) in which language helps to control actions
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and is spoken out loud. The third stage is inner speech (7 years and up) in which silent language is used to develop
thoughts and spoken language is for social communication. Vygetrky also came up with the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) which is also known as the zone of potential development. The distance between a child’s current
and potential abilities is under adult supervision. Instructions by adults typically awaken embryonic functions.
The main difference between Piaget and Vygetrky deals with scaffolding development in the ZPD. Wood (1976)
researched scaffolding development in ZPD and found that the disorganized and spontaneous thoughts of a child were
responded to with logical concepts by an adult which was very similar to assimilation and adaptation in Piaget’s study.
The concept of scaffolding is useful from a teaching perspective as seen by Connor (1997). Children who are supported at
home will be more confident in the classroom. The innervoice concept, Behrand (1992) which measured the amount of
whispering and lip movement when children were given a task, has been very valuable by emphasizing the importance of
social interaction in development. This is what Paiget’s theory was lacking. Some criticisms were that there was too much
social emphasis, he died at 37 which didn’t give him enough time to tweak his theory to the critics views, and there was a
lack of empirical data.
Colin
One theory of cognitive development is that much of it is innate. Newborn babies show reflexes early on such as: sucking,
grasping, basic audio and visual function, producing signals and sound to communicate with the mother, and responding
to facial expressions. This means humans tend to interact socially long before developing language. The brain develops
through synaptic connections between neurons. The brain’s ability to develop and change in response to the environment
is known as neuroplasticity.
Jean Piaget had another theory. His theory was interaction with the environment changes people and cognitive
development is dependent on how a child interacts with the world and learns from his experiences. Piaget thought
knowledge was composed of schemas. Adaption has two forms assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is when
new experiences can be combined with current schemas. Accommodation is when schemas are changed to fit new
experiences. An experiment called (Piaget and Inhelder 1956) supported the idea that different stages of cognitive
development coincided with biological changes. This created child-centered learning which is used in educational
institutions around the world.
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LO4: Discuss how social and environmental variables may affect cognitive development
Hannah
The environment surrounding an individual as they grow and mature can have a significant influence on the
ability of that person to develop cognitively. The influences that a person is subject to as they develop all work together to
effect thoughts and behaviors. Not one influence can be studied without assessing potential and imminent force from
another factor. Dieting and parenting are two such influences that have an effect on cognitive processes.
The accessibility of fast food is ever on the rise, especially in western cultures including the United States. The
effect of a child’s cognitive development in accordance with the consumption of fast food is closely monitored. A study
by Hibbeln et al. (2007) focused on the effect of seafood on unborn children. It was concluded that women who consumed
higher levels of seafood gave birth to children with high Omega3 levels. These children also were observed to have high
motor skills and communicable skills. Another related study was conducted by the Food Research Action Center (FRAC)
in 2010. FRAC focused on the benefits of introducing breakfast programs and their effects on cognitive development. The
research found that children who skip breakfast show slow memory recall, make more mistakes, and have a hard time
distinguishing between images. Children who faced hunger we observed as having academic as well as behavioral and
attention problems. It was also concluded that teenagers that suffer from hunger have higher suspension rates than those
that don’t and are additionally seen as having little to no friends.
The other influence, parenting, has been seen to have an enormous effect on the cognitive development of a child.
Supporting a child to the fullest extent involves physical, emotional, social, and intellectual support. The Michigan
Department of Education (MDE) in 2001 conducted a study that showed parents of high achieving students setting higher
standards that the parents of low achieving students. Data also found that parents involved in their child’s lives, especially
in school, had children with high grades, high test scores, high graduation rate, high attendance rate, high motivation rates,
and low substance use and violent behavior. From this research it was concluded families whose children are high
achievers: establish daily family routines; monitor out-of-school activities; model the value of learning and discipline;
maintain warm and supportive homes, and encourage reading, writing, and discussion.
Jarren
Two primary social/environmental variables that can have an affect on cognitive variables include diet and parenting.
In 1989, Raloff looked at schools that provided free lunch to students and saw an increase in test scores giving
insight into the positive affects of eating a meal in the morning. The Food Research Action Center (FRAC, 2010) found
similar correlations between breakfast and achievement through a meta analysis of food programs. They found, among a
variety of other things, that hunger decreases math scores, can cause slow memory recall, can lead to more hyper active
children, can lead to lower levels of attendance, can lead to higher levels of suspension, and can leave children friendless.
It must be noted that what one consumes for breakfast can definitely impact its affect on cognitive abilities. It must also be
noted that diet can affect ones cognitive abilities before birth. Hibbeln et al. (2007) compared expectant mothers with
higher seafood intake (omega 3) with expectant mothers with lower seafood level intake. His study showed a direct
correlation between omega 3 intake with higher motor skills and better social/communication skills.
The second variable with a great impact on cognitive abilities is parenting. The Michigan Department of
Education (MDE, 2001) saw an increase in achievement in children with an increase in parental support, including an
increase in grades, test scores, graduation rates, attendance, and self esteem. Likewise, they saw an increase in illegal
activity and suspension. Overall, the MDE set guidelines to which parents should adhere to if they wish to increase their
chances of having high achieving children. These guidelines include establishing familial routine (set dinner, chores, etc.),
monitoring children (limited tv, etc.) modeling learning/self disciple/etc., encouraging overall cognitive development
(talking to teachers, etc.), and by encouraging reading/writing/discipline (with emphasis on family time–reading with
children, etc.).
Hunter
One of the most important variables found to affect cognitive development is diet. Diet actually begins effecting children
before they are born. For instance, and important part of neural development is the omega-3 fatty acids that are found in
seafood. In 2007, Hibbeln did a study comparing two groups of mothers. These two groups were divided between mothers
who consumed lots of seafood and ones who didn't. In the end, the study resulted in finding out that the children whose
mothers had eaten more omega 3s had better social and motor skills compared to the mothers who had a low intake of
omega 3s during their pregnancy. People always say breakfast is the most important meal of the day and the FRAC found
this to be true. FRAC, or the Food Research Action Center found that children who skip breakfast are less able to
12
distinguish image, they show increased errors, and have a slower memory recall. Along with that, they noticed that hunger
in general played a large part in cognitive development. For instance, FRAC found that children who were hungry had
lower math scores and were more likely to have to repeat work given. Hungry children were also more likely to have
hyperactivity, be absent/tardy, in general, have behavioral problems.
A second really important variable in cognitive development is parenting. In 2001 the Michigan Department of Education
*MDE), basically said that the involvement of parents in their children's lives had a large part to do with their
successfulness in school. MDE found that when parents are involved in their children's school lives that the children have
higher test scores, more motivation, better attendance, and less behavior problems. Also, MDE said that usually, families
that had children doing well in school shared these same characteristics: an established family routine, controlled after
school actives, and good models that demonstrated hard work paying off. Wood et al. (1976), introduced scaffolding as a
development of Vygotsky's ZPD theory. In this study he had a child's unorganized thoughts responded to with rational
parenting strategies.
Emily 1
Environmental variables and social variables complement each other, in regards their impact on cognitive
variables. An individual’s diet and parenting are an example of this interaction. The effects of dieting begin before child is
born. Hibbein et al in 2007 conducted a study using pregnant women as his subject. Hibbein found that children with
mothers who consumed lower levels of seafood during pregnancy had lower motor skills and social communication skills.
Related research studies are of those such as Raloff, the Food Research Action Center, Cook, and MDE.
Raloff in 1989 conducted a study that found that children who received free school breakfast had an increase in
math and language scores. The 2010 the Food Research Action Center (FRAC) conducted a meta-analysis of food
programs in which resulted in four factors that affect cognitive processes. These factors are: children who skip breakfast
cannot distinguish between images and have lower memory recall; lower math scores; react more slowly; and are more
hyperactive than children who eat breakfast. Cook, in 1996, found that children who participate in a free breakfast
program are less likely to be late or absent to school. However the child would attend school more regularly than children
who do not participate in a free breakfast program. Cook’s study has been supported by McLaughlin in a 2002 study.
Each of these studies illustrates and demonstrates the interconnection between diet and cognitive variables.
Parenting is the supporting of a child’s physical, mental, emotional, and intellectual well -being. Culture also
influences parenting; different cultures have different parenting techniques. MDE, in 2001, conducted a study that focused
on parental expectations. Students, who excel greatly, have parents with higher expectation. When a child’s parent(s) are
involved the student has higher grades, test scores, and graduation rates. The student also has a lower rate of drug and
alcohol use and violent behavior. MDE found that students with these characteristics often have an established daily
routine; parents who are firm about bed times and curfews; eat dinner together; monitor out-of-school activities; arrange
supervised after school activities; has a family that values learning; teach the value of working hard is the only method to
achieve; encourage reading, writing, and discussion among family members; and live in a warm and supportive
environment (home).
Emily 2
The effect of diet on development begins before birth. Seafood is a good source for omega threes and in the
Hibbeln et al. (2007) study two groups of women were studied, those with a high seafood intake and those with a low
seafood intake. The low seafood intake group had low motor and social skills whereas the high seafood intake group had
high levels of motor and social skills. In Raloff’s 1989 study on 1,023 6th graders, free school breakfast was provided and
there was an increase in math and science test scores. In 2012 the Food Research Action Center (FRAC) studied the
benefits of breakfast. A meta-analysis of breakfast programs was used and found that people were unable to distinguish
between images and had slower memory. Hunger can cause behavioral, emotional, and academic recall issues. This study
also found that people who are undernourished are slower on cognitive tasks. The Cook et al. (1996) study showed that
children who participate in free breakfast have lower rates of lateness and absentness which was also supported by
McLaughlin’s 2002 study which showed that schools that provide breakfast have a higher rate of attendance.
Parenting is the act of supporting a child emotionally, physically, socially, and intellectually, however, in some
collectivist cultures the responsibility gets put on siblings to raise the children. In 2001, the Michigan Department of
Education found that the most consistent way of educational achievement is through parental support. When parents were
involved, children received higher grades, test scores, graduation rates, they had a higher self-esteem, and there was a
decreased use of drugs and alcohol. Some characteristics of achievement include establishing a family routine (being firm
about bedtimes and family dinners), monitoring out of school activities (television watching, sports, location of child),
13
having a model value of learning, self discipline, and hard work, questioning daily life conversations, maintaining a
welcoming home, staying in touch with children’s school, and encouraging reading, writing, and discussions.
Chuck
Two variables that affect cognitive development are: diet and parenting. Research into the correlation between diet and
cognitive development was studied in 1989 by Raloff. When Raloff studied the test scores of schools who gave out free
breakfast and those who did not, the schools who gave out free breakfast had higher test scores. McCaughlin also did a
study in 2002 on preschool students. The preschools that offered breakfast attracted the students to coming to school
which increased their exposure to an education. In terms of parenting, a child who is more parentally supported
emotionally and physically is more likely to better cognitively develop. In 2001, The Michigan Department of Education
released a set of guidelines that parents should follow in order to help their children learn better. These guidelines
included setting chores and monitoring their children. These guidelines were released after the department saw a
correlation between academic achievement and parental presence and support.
Imani
It has been observed that there are several factors that play a role environmentally that will affect a child's
cognitive growth and variables. Two of these are food and parenting. It was studied that children with hunger receive
lower grades and need such treatment as mental health counseling. Another observation with food is one of the meals of
the day: breakfast. It has been founded that children who do not eat breakfast have negative social interactions at school.
Cook 1996 studied children who had a universal free breakfast at school and found out that these children have lower
rates of absences and lower rates of being late. This is turn means that the children and receiving more learning and
growing cognitively. Another study that dealt with universal free breakfast was McLaughline 2002 whose results showed
that more children eat breakfast then, especially when it is served in class.
Another topic that affects child’s cognitive variables is parenting. Parenting can be defined as the acts of
supporting a child emotionally, physically, socially and intellectually and that this definition does not refer to a biological
relationship of an adult and child. The MDE, michigan Department of Education, conducted several studies to show that
social adjustment and achievement was due to parent expectations in children. If a parent is involved then the child has
higher test scores, higher graduation rate, increased motivations and self-esteem, lower suspension rate, and a decreased
usage of drugs, alcohol and violence. Parents who monitor how much television their children watch and who read to their
children and have books in the house have children who have higher reading scores.
Megan
There are many variables that may affect cognitive development, among the most important ones are diet and parenting.
Diet has a major impact on cognitive development in that a healthy diet can result in a healthy cognitive development
whereas an unhealthy diet can result in slowed or inconsistent cognitive developments. There has been a large amount of
research conducted on this idea, especially on the benefits of breakfast.
The Food Research Action Center in 2010 conducted a meta analysis on the breakfast programmes offered in schools.
They hypothesized that breakfast had many far reaching benefits on cognitive development. They found that children who
didn’t eat breakfast were unable to distinguish between images and had slower memory recall. And those children who
were then hungry during class often had behavioral, emotional, and academic issues. Undernourished children were lower
on their cognitive development. They concluded that breakfast was in fact an important part of the day because without
breakfast, cognitive development was slowed. Both Cook in 1996 and McLaughlin in 2002 found that elementary schools
that provided free breakfast had lower rates of absence and tardiness and that more children participate in the programs,
respectively.
Parenting is also a very important variable in a child’s cognitive development and is defined as the act of supporting a
child emotionally, physically, socially, and intellectually. Different types of parenting can result in varied cognitive
development. In 2001, the Michigan Department of Education conducted a study and concluded that the most consistent
way of educational achievement is from parental support. When parents were involved in their child’s education: there
were higher grades, test scores, and graduation rates; there was better self esteem and attendance; and a decreased use of
drugs and alcohol. The MDE established the characteristics of parents who will have children with high academic and
social achievement which include establishing a family routine, monitoring out of school activities, model value of
learning, selfdiscipline, and hard work, intelligent conversation, maintaining a warm and inviting home environment, and
staying involved in the child’s school
14
Colin
Social and environmental variables affect cognitive development. Two examples of these factors would be a
child’s nutrition and the parenting style used to raise them. This supports the concept that cognition develops based on
both nature and nurture.
Nutrition affects the the child pre-birth due to the mother's diet during gestation. In a study by Hibbeln et al
(2007) babies of mothers who consumed omega-3 fatty acids were compared with those who did not. Hibbeln found that
babies who had not received these had poor motor skills. As an individual physically develops over the course of their life
the food they eat continues to affect their cognition. This is a social and environmental issue in malnourished communities
that puts the poor at a greater disadvantage.
The Michigan Department of Education (2001) argued that a parent’s expectations and involvement had the greatest
impact on academic success. They noted that children were more motivated and had higher self-esteem. The higher
achievement desire resulted higher grades, test scores, and rate of attendance and graduation. Violence, drug abuse, and
suspension decreased. Key parenting styles include: having a daily routine, incorporating moral values, and monitoring/
providing activities outside of school.
15
B. Social Development
LO5: Examine attachment in childhood and its role in the subsequent formation of relationships
Princess
Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and their caregiver. It can be observed from around 7 months of age,
and manifests itself as separation anxiety in the child when the caregiver is not present. A key element in attachment is
parent sensitivity. John Bowlby, one of the most influential theorists in the area of children's emotional and social
development, developed his own theory in 1951. His theory stated that between the ages if 6-13 months, children are
likely to develop an emotional to their caregivers.
They develop a preference for familiar adults. The desperation and inability of the caregivers to be consistent will
interfere with attachment. Both nature and nurture affect attachment.
Mary Ainsworth conducted an experiment in 1978, called "The Strange Situation." This experiment measured the anxiety
and behavior between infants and their mothers, through a combination of separations and reunions. Also featured was the
introduction of a stranger, someone not known to the cild, in order to observe the child's reaction. The situations varied in
stressfulness. The amount of exploration and child's reaction to the departure if the caregiver was examined. Mary's aim
was to provide empirical support for Bowlby's theory.
Mary developed three types of attachment. Avoidant/detached, is when the infant shows no distress when their mother
leaves, avoids contact upon return, and is not afraid of the stranger. This is typical of babies of unresponsive mothers. The
second type is secure attachment, when the infant is distressed when their mother leaves, and seeks contact upon her
return. Lastly, ambivalent/anxious resistant attachment is when the infant is distressed when their mother leaves, and
quickly seeks contact upon return, but then rejects their mother. In 1990, Main and Solomon added a forth category of
attachment, insecure/Disorganized/Disoriented. This is when the child shows no reaction to their mother leaving or
returning. It's associated with abused children.
In 1987, Hazan and Shaver compared attachments with parents to romantic adult attachments. They assumed the inner
workings model, and then compared self-reported attachment patterns in childhood to those in adult romantic
relationships. They found that secure lovers described their relationships as happy, trusting and friendly; whereas,
avoidant lovers displayed a fear of intimacy, emotional highs and lows, as well as jealousy. Abivalent attachment
characterized romantic love as obsessive, filled with highs and lows, extreme sexual attraction, and jealousy.
Their research supported the idea that attachment styles could be found in adult romantic love. Some concerns showed a
sample of self-selected and disproportionately females. Some forced choices may have skewed the data. A followup by
Hazan and Shaver ten years later replicated the results.
In 1985, Miyake explained attachment differences between the US and Japan. He stated that Japanese mothers put a
greater emphasis on close relationships, yet urge their children to develop their own identity and solve problems with a
wider social group. Though US children are more independent, they rely on adults to solve their problems. The US shows
more avoidant attachment, a consequence of independence, while the Japanese children show a more secure attachment.
They are also more sensitive to group needs as adults.
Karl
Within a person’s childhood, he or she seeks proximity to the mother and react with anxiety to separation from her, which
is the idea of attachment behavior. This provides direct support for the theory of an evolutionary basis of attachment. John
Bowlby believed that a close relationship between the child and the mother is a basic biological need. Bowlby tested his
theory by observing how baby monkeys reacted with distress and screams when separated from their mother for even only
a brief period. According to Bowlby, attachment behavior is characterized by a desire to be near the person the baby is
attached to.
Mary Ainsworth was one of Bowlby’s students and created an experimental procedure called the strange
situation. The strange situation is used to measure the child’s attachment behavior based on how the child reacts when the
mother leaves and subsequently returns. She began her studies in Uganda by sampling 28 babies and observing them over
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time. Ainsworth was particularly interested in the individual differences between mother-child pairs in terms of the quality
of their attachment relationships.
After years of research, Ainsworth created a classification system which included three types of attachment. The
three types are: avoidant, securely attached, and ambivalent. Avoidant is when the child shows apparent indifference
when the mother leaves the room. Securely attached is described by the child being upset when the mother leaves and is
happy to see her when she returns. And finally, ambivalent is when the child is extremely upset when the mother leaves
and has difficulty soothing when the mother returns.
Imani
Attachment can be defined as the long lasting and strong relationship between two people. John Bowlby
published the basic assumptions in 1951. From 6-13 months babies form a social attachment to familar are givers via
facial expressions, and this creates a secure base to explore the enviroment. Emotional attachment leads to emotional
development and affects what happens later in relationships. People also form attachment schemas that guide early
attachment and later help in relationships. Disruption of this attachment negatively affects a person, disruption ranging
from neglect, abuse, not being sensitive, etc. Bowlby said that consistant love and affection leads to developing schemas
for a child that to themselves they see themselves as worty of that type off affection and love and they have a confidence
about love; where hostility and neglect can have the reverse affects of the person feeling worthy of that treatment and the
repeating the treatment. Mary Ainsworth developed the “Strange Situation” to support Bowlby. In the experiement a child
and her mother is placed in a room, in the different events a stranger enters the room and talks to the mother and the
mother leaves and the stranger goes to play with the child, these results were recorded. There were four categories
recorded. A avoidant/detached child, 20 percent of the children, showed an apparent indifference to the mother leaving
and avoiding contact with her when she came back and did not show fear of stranger. These mothers were insensitive
parents; not interacting with the child such as reading and playing. Another category was the secure attached child, 70
percent, the child was upset when the mother left and was happy when mother came back, being easily comforted by her.
This type of mother was engaged in the child life regularly. An ambivalent/anxious resistant attachned child, 10 percent,
was discontented and very upset when mother left but was not easily comforted when she came back. This type of mother
was an inconsistant parent. This last category, the insecure/disorganized/disorientated child showed no reastion to the
mother leaving; these type of mothers were depress or trhe child had interactions with abuse.
Adult attachment is influenced by childhood attachment experiences. Fraley and Shaver 2000 study showed that
secure attached infants led to well adjusted adults who got along with peers, were well liked, more satified with life,
would seek support from partner and give support to partner when distressed; their relationships also showed more trust,
committment and interdependence.
Jolie
Attachment behavior is the desire to be near the person the baby is attached to, returning to the attachment figure in times
of distress, react with anxiety when separated from the attachment figure, and the attachment figure acting as a secure
base for the child. John Bowlby theorized that attachment is based on evolution as it provides children a better chance to
survive, and infants have the biological disposition to send social signals such as smiling, babbling, and crying to
encourage care from their parents. Attachment is dependent on three factors: parental sensitivity, infant’s temperament,
and family circumstances.
Shaffer (1996) believed that attachment develops until around the age of seven months, when infants can recognize
familiar faces and distinguish them from unfamiliar ones and display anxiety when they are approached by a stranger.
Bowlby also believed that children often form internal working model of their first attachment relationship, which is a
cognitive schema of expectations about the attachment figure. If a child receives love from the attachment figure, the child
will view themselves as worthy of love and attention. In the other hand, if the child experiences neglect, they will think
that they deserve to be neglected. The internal working model a child form will later influence their mental health and
their future relationship with other.
Ainsworth (1970) investigated more into children’s emotional development in an experimental procedure called the
strange situation. In the study, the researchers observed a child’s reaction when the mother leaves the room and classified
their behavior into three attachment types. The avoidant type describes the indifferent behavior in a child when the mother
leaves the room and the lack of contact with her when she returns. The mothers of the avoidant type are usually
insensitive to their children. Children are classified as securely attached when they show anxiety when their mothers leave
the room and are happy when she returns. The mothers of this type of children tend to actively support and communicate
with their children. Ambivalent children are upset when their mothers leave, and she has difficulty soothing the child
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when she returns. The mothers of the ambivalent type are usually inconsistent in their reactions to their children. In 1986,
Main and Solomon also added insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment, in which a child shows no particular reaction
when the mother leaves or when she returns. The mothers of this type tend to be chronically depressed and children with
this type might have experienced childhood abuse.
Jarren
Attachment is a strong emotional between one person and another, such as the bonds seen between a child and its
caregiver. Question is, how does early childhood attachment affect future relationships?
John Bowlby believed the a close relationship between a child and its mother is a basic biological need needed for
survival. In his 1951 theory, he spoke of behaviors (smiling, crying, etc.) as being genetically based social signals that
encourage parents to care and interact with their children. He also spoke of attachment behavior in children where there is
a desire to be near the person the child is most closely attached to in the face of distress for comfort and safety. Overall,
Bowlby’s theory noted that there is preference to familair people over others, attachment can have an affect on later
relationships, there is a such thing as attachment schemas based on one’s first attachment, and between the ages of 6 and
13 months, a strong emotional bond is likely to form.
In 1978, Mary Ainsworth created “The Strange Situation” to supply Bowlby’s theory with empirical data meant to
measure children’s attachment behavior based on how they interact when their mother arrives and leaves. Her study had a
mother and a stranger interact, come and go while in the same room with a child. The way the child reacted to the
stranger’s presence, the mother’s focus on the stranger rather than her child, the mother’s interaction with the child, etc.
were all noted. From the study, Ainsworth defined three types of attachment behavior–avoidant/detached, secure, and
ambivalent/anxious. The 20% of the cases from the study with which demonstrated avoidant/detached behavior showed
mothers who were insensitive and children who were indifferent and had little to no fear of strangers. The 70% of the
cases with which demonstrated secure behavior showed active mothers and children who became very upset when their
mother left. Finally, the 10% of the cases which demonstrated ambivalent/anxious behavior showed mothers whose
interaction with their children was inconsistent and children who were not easily soothed by their mothers. Later, in 1990,
Main and Solomon suggested another type of attachment behavior–insecure/disorganized/disoriented–which was
dominated by depressed mothers.
Many studies have popped up over the years that argue early childhood experiences in terms of relationships have
the capacity to impact future relationships greatly. Hazan and Shaver’s 1987 study argued that those in secure
relationships had loving parents as a child. In 2007, Siegel and Jaffre’s study showed that the nonverbal skills used as a
baby’s way of communication with parents before gaining the ability to talk proves to be important in later relationships.
Being able to communicate nonverbally and recognize, say, distress in a loved one is important. Finally, Mlyakr’s 1985
study took into account culture in his study on the role of attachment in future relationships. His study showed that
Japanese mothers, who are rarely separated form their children, show a greater amount of secure attachment versus U.S.
children who are encouraged to be independent and thus show greater amounts of avoidance attachment.
Kaliice
Attachment is the long lasting bond between two people. Attachment between children and someone else tends to happen
quickly. John Bowlby published a theory about child attachment in 1951. He thought that too much affection to a child
would spoil them. In his theory at the age of six to thirteen months, children are likely to show attachment to care givers.
That start to show favorable traits toward people who are familiar. Bowlby theory also states that what happens in
childhood affects them later in life and attachment schemas guide later relationships. If a child receives consent love and
affection they believe that they can be loved and love others. This works as an internal working model.
Mary Ainsworth did a experiment in 1970 called the "The Strange Situation". This experiment observed the
attachment between a parent (mother) and child. During the experiment a mother and child were left in a room with toys
for the child to play with, after a short time a stranger walked into the room sat down and talked to the mother. The
mother then played with the child for a short time, after a couple minutes the stranger then got up and played with the
child. The mother then, got up and left the room. After being alone with the stranger for a short period of time the mother
returned.
This experiment looked at the amount of exploration, the child's reaction go the mother leaving, anxiety to being
alone with the stranger, and the reaction to being reunited with the mother. The results had three categories,
avoident/detached, secure, and resistant. The challenges with this experiment are that it lacks ecological validity, there
was no culture diversity and it doesn't emphasis real life.
Attachment is affected by emotion showed by family members (parental sensitivity), temperament and family
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circumstance. In an experiment done by Hazan and Shaver in 1987, they looked at romantic relationships in correlation to
parent relationships. They found that people in emotional stable relationships where raised in loving households.
Alyssa
Attachment is the long lasting emotional bond between child and caregiver. The two main theories of attachment
include Mary Ainsworth’s “The Strange Situation” (1978) and John Bowlby’s Internal Working Model (1907-1990).
Mary Ainsworth’s The Strange Situation was an experiment that measured anxiety and behavior of an infant.
Anxiety and behavior was measured through a series of separations and reunions between the child and caregiver. A
stranger was introduced to the environment in order to observe the child's reaction to the absence of the caregiver,
presence of the stranger, and the presence of the caregiver after entering the room again. Ainsworth found that children
can display secure attachment, ambivalent attachment, and avoidant attachment. In secure attachment infant is upset when
mother leaves then happily seeks comfort upon her return. In ambivalent attachment the infant is upset when mother
leaves, then quickly seeks comfort upon return, but then rejects mother soon after. In avoidant Attachment the infant
shows no distress when mother leaves, avoids contact upon her return, and is not afraid of the stranger. The mothers of the
children who display avoidant attachment are normally unresponsive and not affectionate. In the United States secure
attachment is found in 70% of children, ambivalent attachment is found in 10% of children, and avoidant attachment is
found in 20% of children.
John Bowlby theorized that early attachment patterns are formed with parents. The patterns that parents display to
children will carry over to their adult relationships, because the experience forms mental schemas. A child's experience
will create expectations that will later turn into mental schemas. If a secure attachment is formed the child will feel worthy
of love and attention and will give love and attention when older. If an avoidant attachment is formed the child will not
feel worthy of love and will not give love and attention when older. The Continuity Attachment Patterns is a theory that
supports Bowbly’s theory. This theory states that patterns of attachment form in early childhood and then develop into
schemas.
Emily
Attachment is defined as the strong emotional bond between two people. John Bowlby studied attachment in childhood
and thought that the bond between child and mother was biologically needed for survival. Bowlby thought that behaviors
were genetically based social signals that made parents interact with their children and to take care of them. In some cases
a parent may not be the care taker or the one that has the emotional bond with the child and so the child could be more so
attached to the person they are comfortable with and feel safe with. Bowlby found that there is a sense of familiarity
between children and adult figures, attachment can effect relationships, and attachment schemas may exist and they are
based on a person’s first attachment. Bowlby also noted that strong emotional bonds are most likely to form in humans
from 6-13 months old.
Mary Ainsworth also studied children’s attachment and conducted an experiment to give Bolby’s theory some
empirical data. Ainsworth made “The Strange Situation” which observed children whose mothers continuously left and
reentered the room. A mother and child would enter a room and the mother would interact with a stranger. The observers
looked at the child’s response to the interaction, how the mother acted, and the interactions between the child and mother.
There were 3 types of attachment behavior that Ainsworth noted which were avoidant/detached, secure, and
ambivalent/anxious. People who displayed avoidant/detached behavior were insensitive mothers with kids that didn’t care
about strangers. People who displayed secure behavior were very active mothers with kids that would become upset when
their mothers left. People who displayed ambivalent/anxious behaviors were mothers who were not as involved with their
kids and the kids didn’t necessarily respond emotionally to their mothers.
Along with Ainsworth’s types of attachment behavior was Main and Solomon’s insecure/disorganized/disoriented
type of attachment behavior which was mostly seen in depressed mothers.
Studies have shown that childhood experiences can effect future relationships as seen with Hazan and Shaver,
Siegel and Jaffre, and Mlyakr. Hazan and Shaver showed that kids with involved and loving parents were later in
secure/stable relationships. Siegel and Jaffre showed that a baby trying to communicate with its parents in a nonverbal
manner plays a crucial role in future relationships. Then there is Mlyakr who showed that Japanese mothers in comparison
to American mothers have more of a secure attachment because they are basically always with their kids compared to
American mothers who try to teach their kids independence.
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Hunter
The attachment theory says that internal working models continue though out one's lifespan whereas longitudinal studies
show that the they're stable, but can be modified. Research about this topic suggests that there could possibly be a link to
attachment at a young age and an adults relationships in the future. Hazan and Shaver (1987) found that the attachment
theory and adult love could explain positive and negative emotions like caring, intimacy, trust, fear of intimacy, jealousy,
and emotional inconsistency. Hazan and Shavers experiments led them to assume that adult attachment behavior is a
reflection of what someone thinks about themselves and relationships as a result of something that may have happened at
a younger age. To test this, they translated attachment styles and put them into a quiz that went into the local newspaper.
The sample of participants in this were between the ages 13-82. The mean age of the people was 36, there were 205
males, and 415 females. In another study they used 108 college students. In the end, the researchers found that 60%
showed a secure attachment, 20& anxious-avoidant, and the last 20% were anxious-ambivalent. The participants were
also asked about their upbringing. The securely attached people had attentive, responsive parents. The anxious-avoidant
participants had unresponsive, ejecting parents. The anxious-ambivalent participants had parents who were sometimes
responsive and anxious. In the end, they theorized the romantic love does in fact have to do with early attachment
relationships and differences in fault attachment are related to beliefs about how they feel about themselves and other
people.
The experimenters of this warned against drawing conclusions between the two relations, even though their
hypothesis was, in fact, proved correct. They said it would be overly deterministic to suggest theta insecurely attached
children would grow up to be in an insecure adult relationship. They noticed that he older a person got the more they were
able to develop new approaches to life. Problems? They said the study was based upon self-inflicted samples which could
not be representative. There was sample bias present because there were more females than males, self-report data isn't
always reliable, and the study was only conducted in the western world so you can't see if the results are consistent across
the world.
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LO6: Discuss potential effects of deprivation or trauma in childhood on later development
Hannah
As many people may find out by watching crime shows on television, some of the convicted felons confess that at
some point during their childhood there were complications. Most often it appears that felonies were committed in the
later life of some child who had mommy/daddy issues or they may have possibly been abused. Fortunately for us, the
shows we have been watching do have some scientific basis in the real world. Multiple studies have been conducted to
evaluate the effects of childhood trauma and/or deprivation on such individual’s later life.
One of the most prominent, and probably one of the most controversial, studies that focuses on the aspect of
trauma and deprivation was conducted by Harlow and Suomi in 1971. The aim of these two researchers was to engender
clinical depression in rhesus monkeys and observe how it affected their later life. The researchers concocted this cage
which they called the “Pit of Despair” in order to cause a stir of emotion. This steel cage (or prison) held a rhesus monkey
and allowed no interaction from outside stimuli. The monkey in the cage was completely isolated from the world and was
only fed. The rhesus monkeys were first put into the cage shortly after they were born in order to reduce the effect that
any interaction may have had to influence the later findings. Four monkeys were held in these cages for thirty days; four
monkeys were in the cages for six months; and four monkeys were in the cages for a complete year. The monkeys that
were in the cages for days came out very antisocial and lacked normal abilities of communication with the others. The
rhesus monkeys that were held in the cages without contact with anything but their food were more severely damaged. It
was reported that these subjects barely moved, wouldn’t eat, and eventually two of them starved to death.
A second experiment by Harlow and Suomi aimed to see how isolation may affect the parenting skills of the
rhesus monkeys. However, it was found that the monkeys who were isolated were unable, or plainly didn’t want, to mate.
This caused the researchers to make a device they called the “Rape Rack.” The female monkeys were strapped into the
normal mating position and were forcibly impregnated. When they infant was born, they were incapable of social
interaction and had no idea how to care for the infant. It was observed that one mother chewed off the fingers and toes of
her infant, one mother violently smashed her infants face, and yet another mother simply ignored the infant.
As you can see the way in which the rhesus monkeys were raised, in isolation, caused them to behave drastically
different when compared to a relatively normal rhesus childhood. Since this study used rhesus monkeys as its subjects,
generalizability has to be evaluated when trying to relate findings to humans. It is also the case that the experiments may
lack ecological validity due to the harsh nature of the condition. However, this is a clear indication of how much
deprivation and trauma have an effect on behavior.
Taylor
Situations that involve deprivation or trauma affect disease prevalence and behavioral patterns. Studies conducted by
researchers such as those like Felitti, Harlow, Suomi, and Britton have supported the claim that childhood deprivation or
trauma could have potential effects in later development.
Felitti et al., in 1995, conducted a study testing the exposure to adverse events during childhood. He found that
there was a correlation between adult health and events and that an individual who encountered four or more events had
an increased health risk. Although there was a correlation made due to the data collected, no cause and effect relationship
can be assumed. Harlow and Suomi’s 1971 study was one of which had caught public attention due to its graphic and
unethical testing techniques. The aim of Harlow and Suomi’s study was to produce clinical depression and to measure the
depression. The pit of despair was a device designed and used during the experiment causing the participants—
monkeys—to become depressed. This device was a steel cage that isolated the monkey. Each monkey was feed
throughout the experiment however the length at which each monkey remained isolated in the cage varied; a monkey
would be placed in the pit of despair for either four, six, or twelve months. Harlow, individually, wanted to test the
parenting skills of the isolates, but the isolates were not able to mate. The rape rack was then invented. This device
required the monkey to be strapped into the proper mating position and was forcefully impregnated by a normal male
monkey. Harlow found that these females were unable to parent an offspring properly. The female monkey would either
abuse or avoid the infant. Blum suggested that deprived infants of a safe and loving environment affects later
development. Britton in 1997 conducted a test that showed that disturbed children came from disturbed homes or
backgrounds. Such environments that deprived the child increased the child’s wanting of power. Britton found that
children who had been deprived were more likely to show control over someone else in order to make up for how they
felt.
Other supportive studies such as Dobbs’ 2009 study suggests that the majority of individuals have genes that
allow them to survive any situation—Dobbs used flowers as a metaphor to express his proposal. Suomi in 2005 suggested
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that the parental technique used to raise a child affects development. Suomi tested two types of monkeys: neurotic and
bullies. Each of these studies support the proposal that there is a potential effect of deprivation or trauma in childhood that
can have an effect on later development.
Megan
It is well understood that what happens during childhood has a great impact on what happens in adulthood. This is entirely
true in the case of the effects of trauma or deprivation on development into adulthood. Adverse childhood traumas
include, but are not limited to, sexual abuse, any sort of physical abuse, and death of family members. These childhood
traumas often lead to illness as an adult. This response will focus on the effects of deprivation.
The most famous study on the effects of deprivation was the 1970’s study conducted by Harlow and Suomi on rhesus
monkeys. His aim was to produce clinical depression in the monkeys and then monitor their reactions. He created this
thing which is scientifically called the vertical chamber apparatus, but for dramatic effect Harlow called it the “Pit of
Despair.” Inside the pit of despair, the monkeys were not allowed connection to the outside world. They never interacted
with another living creature. He took newborn rhesus monkeys and put them in the pit. After thirty days, they were
seriously disturbed and after a year, they hardly moved. Two monkeys refused to eat and as a result, died. Harlow wanted
to discover what would happen if the isolated monkeys mated, but he found that the isolated monkeys could not mate and
therefore could not parent.
Inability to willfully mate was not an obstacle for Harlow. To overcome this minor setback, he created what he called the
“rape apparatus” in which an isolated female was placed and put in the mating position, and then a normal male was
introduced, and he seeing a female in the mating position did what nature intended him to. The female was forcibly
impregnated. When the baby was born, the mother simply could not parent the child. She lacked the skills to do so. The
parents abused or neglected their young, one mother got so violent that she chewed the foot of her young. Another
crushed the head of her young. Harlow’s goal through all of these horrible results was to show that love and affection are
crucial in healthy childhood development. Deprivation can lead to clinical depression and an inability to parent.
Harlow has been seriously criticized on ethical grounds. Deborah Blum said that his study just resulted in common sense
conclusions and that his inhumane practices with the rhesus monkeys were unjustifiable. It is also difficult to generalize
results from animal testing to humans.
Chuck
A child can experience trauma for many reasons and in different forms. The child could be an orphan and deprived of
parental figures or he could be subject to physical or sexual abuse. Either way, deprivation or trauma both has adverse
effects on a child’s development later in life. These effects were studied by Rutter in 2001. Rutter performed a
longitudinal study on children in UK adoption facilities. Half of the children were from Romania and another amount
from the UK, some of these children had also experienced physical and/or sexual abuse. When studying the characteristics
of the Romanian children, Rutter found three significant differences. One: The Romanian children had severe attachment
problems. They were too comfortable with strangers and made their own decisions in anxiety provoking situations. Two:
The children had extremely delayed cognitive development and a distinguishable amount of over activity. And Three:
Ritter found that the older the Romanian children were in the facility the more mental and social impairments they had.
All of these characteristics could affect them even later on in life when these children build relationships of their own.
These children could go on to hurt or be hurt by the people they surround themselves with because that could be what they
are used, due to their childhood.
Colin
Psychologists agree that deprivation and trauma may stunt development. However, some children are considered more
resilient than others. Harlow and Suomi wanted to test these limits but could not ethically experiment with humans. They
decided to test on rhesus monkeys instead. Besides ethical criticisms the experiment also cannot fully be applied to
humans.
The experiment was titled The Pit of Despair 1971 in order to spark controversy. Harlow forced the monkeys into
a state of depression. In order to create this they were thrown into isolation for a long period of time (one was even held
for a year). This isolation deprived them of social interactions. The female rhesus monkeys were then forcibly
impregnated because they were too emotionally crippled to engage in sex. The monkeys were already deprived and now
they’d become traumatized. Harlow then waited for them to give birth. The monkey who was kept in isolation for a year
killed her baby. The other monkeys ignored their offspring to the point they starved.
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LO7: Define resilience and discuss strategies to build resilience
Megan
Resilience is defined as the ability to recover from one or many stressful events. Stressful events can include but are not
limited to: abuse at home, bullying, loss of a loved one, and other traumatic experiences. Schools are important in
strengthening resilience in children. The NY center for children in 2004 have come up with a number of resilience
strategies, four of which are discussed here. One: home visit programmes are popular and
have proved quite effective because it decreases the amount of child abuse, gives access to healthcare, and lowers the
amount of mothers with postpartum depression. Two : Teen mother parent education and groups are groups who support
the teenage mothers, opening up her social network. This results in a higher number of graduates, lowers the amount of
postpartum depression, and reduced the risk of subsequent pregnancies. Three:
Head start/early head start programmes found that parents who participate in these programmes become more emotionally
supportive. It also encourages language development and reduces the amount of corporal punishment used. Four:
Afterschool programmes found that participants who used these in turn had higher test and reading scores and an overall
better motivation.
Princess
Resilience is the process of avoid adverse outcomes when facing hardships. There are numerous sources of residence.
These sources include: academic competence, an effective and supportive family life, a warm relationship between mom
and dad, an effective social life, the environment, and also employment. The sources of adversity include: poverty a d
results in disadvantages, social exclusion, and unemployment/ low quality work.
Schoon and Bartley (2008) conducted a longitudinal study which looked at other studies. The results were based
on studies of over 400, 000 people. They found that poverty results in disadvantages. One is social exclusion, which is
being excluded from "normal" social programs. Another disadvantage is unemployment, or low quality work. This can
lower a person's self esteem, thus affecting families a d weakening their ties.
There are many strategies to strengthen resilience. Sagor (1990) concluded that schools can provide support for
children. The themes are competency, usefulness, potency, and optimism. Competency is feeling successful, belonging
equals feeling wanted, an individual feels needed w/ usefulness, potency is feeling unpowered, and optimism is feeling
hopeful. Ackerman (1997) focused on helping children who had been affected by the divorces of their parents.
The New York City Center for Children (2004) research shows that 81% of deaths from child abuse are infants
and toddlers. Over 200,000 children are abused. One strategy to strengthen resilience is home visit programs. These
programs decrease child abuse in low income families, and remind moms of their obligations to care for their children.
Brother and Repucci (1897) suggests the strategy if teen mom-parent education. These groups are created to provide peer
support and extended family in child's care. Love et. al. (2005) introduced the strategy of early headstart programs. These
programs are created to help parents become more emotionally supportive and to decrease corporal punishment. Mahoney
et. al. (2005) introduced after-school programs. These programs allow students to achieve better test scores and receive
better motivation.
Elder and Conger (2000) looked at rural families in Iowa. They IDE tidied five resources of resilience. One is
strong international bonds. Another is to be socialized in productive roles in social leadership. Third is to maintain a
network of positive engagement. Forth, have close relationships with grandparents; and lastly, gave interactions in the
community.
Jolie
Resilience is defined as the ability to recover from adverse outcomes or doing better than expected when confronted with
adversities. A meta-analysis by Schoon and Bartley (2008) shows that there are three main sources of adversities: poverty
(which results in less chance to grow and develop mentally and physically, poor diet, and higher risk of divorce), social
exclusion, and unemployment or low-quality work (leading to low self-esteem and negatively impacting family life).
According to the researchers, resilience can be promoted by academic competence, supportive family life, effective social
environment, and employment. The New York Center for Children also suggested several programs to build resilience:
home visit programs (can reduce child abuse, increase access to medical care, and decrease rates of maternal depression),
teen mother parent education and parent groups (a parenting education program for unmarried teen mothers aimed to
prevent child abuse, increase chance of graduation, and delay subsequent pregnancies), Head Start and Early Head Start
programs (help parents to be more supportive emotionally and use less corporal punishment), and after school programs
(help students to achieve higher test scores, better reading achievement, and more motivation. In addition, Wang (1994)
23
and Sagor (1996) believed that school can also encourage resilience by providing support and promoting competency,
belonging, usefulness, potency, and optimism.
Karl
Resilience is the ability to recover or bounce back from very stressful events. Some research shows that the consequences
of early adversities are to a large extent dependent on the nature of subsequent like experiences. According to Schoon et
al. (2002), resilience should be seen as positive adaption, despite the experience of risk, and not as a personality attribute.
Researchers have also found a number of potential protective factors, such as intelligence, sociability, special talents, and
close relationships with parents. Three main factors are particularly important when it comes to protection from the
damaging effects of stressful life events. They include: the temperament of the child, a close relationship with at least one
parent, and social support in the community.
Researchers now work to find ways to protect children from the damaging effects of stressful life situations.
Developing resiliency can be cultivated by providing and promoting protective factors, also, being resilient is about
coping which is finding appropriate ways to deal with the stressors of life. The New York Center for Children suggests
several strategies to promote resilience and prevent child abuse and neglect. Home visit programs have proved effective,
especially in high risk families in order to reduce child abuse. Teen mother parent education and parent groups improve
the chance of high school graduation, prevent child abuse and it was also seen to reduce social isolation and depression.
Head Start and Early Head Start programs have helped parents by making them more emotionally supportive and by
aiding their language development. Finally, after-school programs have helped children and students achieve higher test
scores, reading achievements, and increased motivation.
Kaliice
Resilience is the process of avoiding adverse outcomes while facing difficult situations. Children experience a event or
stress, but then seems to recover, they show signs of resilience and they are not forever marked by the traumatic
experience.
Schools are thought to be the focal point of many communities and children's lives. In schools children not only learn
academics, but they learn social practices and cues. They meet people and are introduced to mentors. Schools are suppose
to teach children values and mold a emotional stable child. Sagor in 1995, and Wang in 1994, introduced the academic
strategies to build resilience. The strategies were, competency (feeling successful), belonging (feeling wanted), usefulness
(feeling needed), potency (feeling empowered), and optimism (feeling encouraged and valued).
In 2004, The New York Center of children outlined the strategies to promote resilience and prevent child abuse. The first
strategy was set up home visits program from the time when the child is first brought home. This strategy would let the
parent know that there is someone out there looking at what they do. The second strategy is having teen mother parent
education. In 1997, Britner and Reppucci found that such groups help teens prepare themselves, which could decrease
depression. Head start and early head start programs is the third strategy. Love found in 2005, that parents that have their
children involved are more emotional support and use less corporal punishment. The last strategy is after school activities.
According to Mahoney in 2005, children involved in these programs have better test scores, test better in reading, and
have more overall motivation.
Hannah
Resilience is one of the many terms referred to in psychology that is quite difficult to define. Resilience as a general term
refers to an individual’s ability to bounce back after being face with a trying or stressful situation. One possible
psychology specific definition is: the process of avoiding adverse outcomes or doing better than expected when
confronted with assaults on the development process. A single definition cannot be strictly relied on due to the fact that
not everyone is affected in the same way when faced with challenging situations and adversity.
It is widely believed and accepted that schools are the fulcrum of larger activities. Schools not only educate
individuals on facts, but are also responsible for teaching a basic level of values and morals in any given environment.
Sagar in 1996 and Wang in 1994 found five themes that are persistent in resilience building in schools. The five themes
are as follows: competency, belonging, usefulness, potency, and optimism. Ackerman in 1997 also concluded that group
therapy, peer therapy, and the like help individuals build resilience.
Schoon and Bartley, two luminaries of resilience work, in 2008 conducted a meta-analysis of multiple studies on
resilience and in total looked at about 40,000 individuals. These researchers identified three main causes of adversity:
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poverty and its results and disadvantages, social exclusion, and unemployment/ low quality work. In addition to finding
these causes of adversity, Schoon and Bartley also acknowledged four important resilience strengtheners: academic
competence, a supportive family and family life, an effective social environment, and employment.
Elder and Conger in 2000 collected date from Iowa counties focusing on the children in these rural areas. These
researchers listed mechanisms found to help deal with adversity. Such mechanisms included: strong inter-generational
bonds; socialization into productive roles in work and school leadership; a network of positive engagement in church,
school, and community life; close relationships with grandparents; and interaction with the rest of the community.
Hunter
Resilience is the ability for someone to bounce back from an event very prevalent in their lives or very stressful. A person
who is resilient may not even seem like anything has effected them in any way whatsoever. In 2002, Schoon said that
resilience should be seen as a positive adaptation, despite the experience of risk, and not as a personality attribute.
Researchers say that the consequences of early adversities are dependent on the nature of the subsequent life experiences.
Rutter (1981) said severe deprivation may not even have long-term effects if the subsequent rearing environment is good.
When trying to build resilience, there are three very important factors that help protect from the possibly
damaging effects of a stressful life event. These three factors include: child temperament, close relationships with family,
and social support in the community. These factors were supported by Werner (2005) who said that only a minority of
children actually developed serious emotional disturbances and behavior problems. Many say a large part of being
resilient is coping. This is the ability to find appropriate ways to deal with stressors that one may experience in life. These
4 factors are given by the New York Center for Children that give strategies to help build resilience: Home visit programs,
teen mother parent education and parent groups, early head start and head start programs, and lastly, after school
programs.
Emily
Schools are pivotal in a person’s life and can provide support to at risk students with 5 resilience themes. The 5 themes are
competency (feeling smart), belonging (feeling valued), usefulness (feeling needed), potency (feeling empowered), and
optimism (feeling encouraged). Ackerman found that school can help kids who have been hit with unexpected adversities
such as divorce. The New York Center for Children (2004) found that 872,000 kids were neglected or abused in the
United States. 81% of all deaths were infants and toddlers. Through this organization there has come a number of
resilience strategies. The first being home visit strategies which are good for reducing post-partum stress disorder and it
boosts the bond between the mother and child. Another strategy is teen mother parent education (Britner and Repucci)
where groups will help to support the mother which also reduces the risk of post-partum and creates a wider social
network for the mother to reach out for help. A third resilience strategy is head start/early head start programs (Love,
2005) where parents have become more emotionally supportive, it encourages language development, and there’s a
reduction of corporal punishment. The final resilience strategy is after school programs (Mahoney) in which one year of
participation has shown higher test and reading scores as well as better motiviation.
Schoon and Bartley did a meta-analysis over a long period of time. They covered the lives of 40,000 people. They
found that there are three sources of adversity. The first source is poverty and its result in disadvantages. Poverty leads to
less opportunities as well as mental and physical health issues. The second source is social exclusions in which poor
families have facilities that are in disrepair. The third source is unemployment/low quality work which can lead to low
self-esteem, the kids may feel out of control of their lives, and it can strain family relationships. Then there are four
sources of resilience. The first source is academic competence which typically had a life outside of the classroom
motivated with positive outlooks for the future. The second is effective/supportive family life where the parents showed
an interest in the kid’s education, they read to their kids, they had family activities, there was a supportive father figure,
and there is a warm relationship between the mother and father. The third is employment which creates family cohesion
and shouldn’t take priority over social development. The fourth is effective social environment.
Elder and Cogner studied the effect of drought and over rain seasons in Iowa which led to the farm crisis. Young
people were protected and on paths towards higher academic achievements. They found 5 strategies for resilience: strong,
intergenerational bonds; being socialized in productive roles in work and social leadership; network of positive
engagement in school, etc.; close ties with grandparents; and an interaction between family and community.
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Colin
Resilience is the ability to bounce back from a traumatic situation. It is important to differentiate between specific risk
factors and specific outcomes. There must be a reason why some people develop psychopathology. Being a psychopath
involves having an utter lack of empathy.
Protective factors are one’s that prevent an individual from developing along a negative path. There are three major
protective factors that are most important when it comes to traumatic experiences: the temperament of the child, a close
relationship with at least one parent, and social support from with the community.
Stressful situations cannot always be avoided and coping with stressors is a major part of life. The likelihood of someone
being able to cope decreases as the number of risk factors increase. However there are ways the community can help an
individual overcome those factors. Home visit programs reduce rates of child abuse and maternal depression. Teen parent
groups educate mothers on how to nourish their children emotionally so they develop into stress resilient adults. A lack of
programs like these or protective factors along with the presence of risk factors results in a person developing into a
psychopath.
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C. Identity Development
LO8: Discuss the formation and development of gender roles
Alyssa
Gender is the social and psychological characteristics associated with being female or male. Gender roles are
characteristics or activities seen as feminine or masculine. By the age of 2 years old children have gender identity,
correctly labeling the sex and gender of both themselves and other people. At about age 7, children recognize gender
consistency, realizing that a person’s sex will remain the same gender no matter what.
The social learning theory argues that gender roles are learned through observation of inappropriate and
appropriate behavior of sexes through modeling. Archer and Lloyd’s study of 2002 supports the social learning theory. In
this study women played with four –month old babies. They chose gender appropriated toys for the babies according to
how they were dressed.
The gender schema theory states that cognitive processes play a key role in the development of gender identity
and gender roles. Labeling and conformity are important in the schema theory. An important factor in development of
gender role identity is children's ability to label themselves as female or male. Conformity is shown through interaction
with models because they encourage a child to act like their own sex. Gender schemas are then used to organize
knowledge and in information processing.
Taylor
Gender identity is primarily based on how an individual accepts or rejects sexual orientation based on the terms:
biological sex, sexuality, or gender. By definition, biological sex is characterized by biological characteristic—whether an
individual has two X chromosomes, characterizing the individual as female, or if an individual has an X and Y
chromosome classifying the individual as a male. Sexuality is defined as who an individual is attracted to; whether an
individual is attracted to a male or female defines their sexuality. Gender is the identity in which a person adapts after
processing experiences. Identity formation is an active cognitive process that is open to external and internal influences.
Gender roles are the rights and duties of being either male or female. Culture is one of the most influential factors
that affect gender roles. Cultures expect gender roles to be different but not binary. The two spirit concept is an idea that
suggests that an individual possess both male and female identities—each are represented at the same time. Bem (1974)
argued that people tended to be freer and emotionally adjusted once they have reached an age in order to understand
gender constancy. Gender constancy is the idea that gender is fixed and will remain that way.
Researchers have taken multiple approaches to describe the formation and development roles. These approaches
derive from the social learning theory, the cognitive development theory, and biology based theories. The social learning
theory approach suggests that an individual learns what is considered gender appropriate and inappropriate behavior
through modeling and conditioning. Archer and Lloyd conducted an experiment in 2002 and found that women playing
with either a four month old baby boy or girl gave the child gender appropriate toys based on how the child was dressed.
Leary et al in 1982 found that television watchers are prone to modeling the behavior of what they watch. The best
explanation of gender roles in culture was done by Mead in 1935. Mead focused on gender relativism—gender roles
appropriate for culture and location. He found that males and females adapted traditional masculine behavior in
Mondugamour cultures; males and females adapted feminine behavior in Arapesh cultures; and that gender roles were
inverted in Tchamboli cultures—females were aggressive and males were nurturing. Mead also found that there were
cross-cultural similarities. Another supportive finding is that of William and Best in 1990. William and Best found that
male and female characteristics showed uniformity across cultures and that differences were due to culture.
Kohlberg in 1966 found that there is a greater understanding of gender when mentally ready then actively act on
gender behavior based on surrounding support. Marcus and Overton suggested that gender conservation happens at the
same time as other conservations. Liben in 1993 suggested that only suggested vision of gender behavior is accepted by
an individual. Fagot in 1985 suggested that parent and teachers positively reinforce positive female gender type and
negatively reinforce negative behavior. These studies support the cognitive development theory approach.
Some research that supports biology based theories is Michael Thompson, and O’Donnell and Sharpe. Michael
Thompson found that most Rough and Tumble play is not violent and is not result in violence. O’Donnell and Sharpe
found that in primate societies there is a dominance hierarchy, males show a preference for rough and tumble play, and
females feel that they do not need to participate in in rough and tumble play.
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Jarren
The formation and development of gender roles consists of three main concepts that one must grasp before furthering their
understanding–gender identity (how one label’s themselves), gender role (the societal expectations of a particular gender),
and gender constancy (the realization that sex is constant and fixed despite one’s gender identity). The three levels of
analysis (social cultural, cognitive, and biological) each have their own theory behind the formation and development of
gender roles.
The social side of psychology, centered around the Social Learning Theory, sees gender role formation and
development as learned behavior. It assumes that children learn gender appropriateness and inappropriateness behavior
through observation, modeling, and, most importantly, society’s preexisting sex based assumptions on gender. Archer and
Lloyd’s 2002 study observed women choosing “gender appropriate toys” based on whether a child was dressed in pink or
blue, stereotypical gender based colors, unaware of the actual sex of the child. In 1979, Lamb and Roopnarine found that
even in child’s play, same sex reinforcement is apparent–boys play with boys toys, whereas girls play with girl toys.
Furthermore, in 1972, Louis shed light on many parent’s affect on a child’s formation and development of gender roles
through parent/child interaction. In this study, it was shown that girls are often encouraged to be passive and dependent,
whereas boys are often encouraged to independent and strong; however, the time period must be noted for this particular
study.
Cognitive psychologists focus more on the mental side of the formation and development of gender roles. In
1966, Kohlberg used his Cognitive Developmental Theory to suggest children make a cognitive judgement about their
gender identity before they select same sex models for sex typed behaviors. He outlined three stages of the development
of gender identity in children as follows:
1) basic gender identity - identification of others by gender based purely on appearance, but gender is not assumed to be
stable over time; therefore, as a person’s appearance changes, such as hair length, so does their gender.
2) gender stability - it is recognized that gender is stable over time; it is understood that girls will grow up to be women
and boys will grow up to be men.
3) gender consistency - it becomes understood that, regardless of a change in appearance and activities, gender stays the
same. it is constant.
Once children reach stage three and have achieved gender consistency, they are highly motivated to make their behavior
align with their self concept of their own gender.
Finally, the biological level of analysis looks at the formation and development of gender roles as a result of
physiological mechanisms. The simplest example is the hormonal difference between males (testosterone) and females
(estrogen) and the chromosomal difference (XX vs. XY). In 1972, Money and Ehrhardt found that females exposed to
high levels of testosterone in the womb tend to me more physically active like boys. Similarly, low levels of testosterone
lead to the development of female characteristics.
Overall, it must be noted that no single level of analysis is the answer to how and why gender roles develop and
form. In reality, all three play varying roles.
Dominique
There are a number of different theories about how human beings form gender roles. These theories are what give psychologists
insight into what gender actually is, and why they form in differing ways. The overarching definition of what gender is, is the identity
that a person develops that acts as a blueprint to how a person behaves in society and quit possibly whom they associate with.
One of the main theories on how gender forms in humans is the social learning theory. It states that gender roles are formed
in humans as children through the modeling and conditioning of gender appropriate behaviors. This means that children develop
gender through the observation of guardian figures or the models of gender appropriate behavior within their environment.
Psychologists such as: Leary (1982) or Louis (1972) supported the ideals of the social learning theory in studies that tested modeling
techniques that could be employed in the real world.
Leary in 1982 had children watch gender appropriate behaviors on a split screen; one half of the screen depicted appropriate
behaviors for the feminine gender and the other masculine. The results of the study showed that based of the observation of the
physical attributes of the models on the television the children modeled behavior the behavior that most closely related to their own
sex. In the 1972 Louis study he observed how in a child’s development they begin to model their own attributes through the
interaction of their guardian. Because mothers are more present in the nurturing of children and father less present boys and girls
differentiate in gender roles and children model this. Boys grow to become more independent while girls develop a more submissive
disposition.
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LO9: Explain cultural variations in gender roles
Hannah
In order to establish a gender role, one must first form an idea of gender identity. Gender identity is a person idea
of what sex they are and what sex others are as well. Gender roles are the activities prescribed to each gender. For
example, in western cultures male are expected to play rough with each other and possibly play with trucks and guns.
Females, in western cultures, are expected to be nurturing and play with dolls. Matsumoto in 1994 provides us with a
relatively accepted, but not 100%, definition of culture: a set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group
of people and passed from one generation to the next by cultural practices and language.
Margaret Mead in 1935 conducted a notable experiment that personifies the idea of cultural variations in gender
roles. Mead closely observed the practices of three distinct tribes. These tribes included the Mundugumour, the Arapesh,
and the Tchambuli people. Mead found that Mundugumour people, both men and women, behave according to
“traditional” masculine standards; i.e. aggressiveness and competitiveness. The Arapesh people, both men and women,
leaned toward “traditional” feminine ideals such as caring and nurturing behaviors. Lastly, the Tchambuli people naturally
have inverted gender roles when compared to western cultures. For example, the Tchambuli men were more nurturing,
whereas the women were more aggressive. As you can see, our western culture is not universal and we just add to the
diversity in gender roles worldwide.
Hunter
Gender roles are still being studied around the world and one of the big questions has been the influences of gender roles
across different cultures. Gender divisions are still of huge prevalence in the world and they are a huge par of every
culture. It is well known across the the globe the women belong in the kitchen/the home taking care of the children and
men are to be working. In 1987 Eagly brought about the social role theory that says that gender stereotypes arise from the
differing roles men and women typically occupy. For instance, it may appear that women are better at what you normally
see them do and vice versa. Gender roles are given based on societal beliefs and the nature of the two genders. These are
expressed often through what people say and things like religion.
Williams and Best (1990) say that gender stereotypes arise out of gender roles. Once stereotypes become the real
deal, they become models for gender rolling in society. This teaches children about adult roles and what may be socially
appropriate. Gender stereotypes are said to be seen in children at a very young age. Best et al. (1977) did a cross-cultural
study on gender stereotypes with children form the UK, IReland, and the US. These kids were between the ages of 5 and
8. The results of this study showed the toys and girls in the age groups said females were soft-hearted and males were
strong. At the age of 8 the stereotypes were more complex but were along the same lines as the 5 and 7 year olds.
In 1935, Mead, and anthropologist, compared the gender roles in three different New Guinean tribes within 100
miles of each other. Mead's research concluded that in the Arapesh tribes, men and women were cooperative, gentle, and
loving. These three traits are generally the stereotype for women in Western culture. In this tribe, both men and women
took care of the crops and the children. In the Mundugamor tribe, the men and women were arrogant, competitive, and
emotionally unresponsive. These men and women were constantly bickering and were not interested in the children which
lead them to become self-reliant. Self reliance and a trait that the Mundugamor's strongly valued. Lastly, the Tchambali.
Men in this tribe were the opposite of how men are in Western cultures. These men gossiped and talked about body
adornments (traits typical of women). On the other hand, women were responsible for making tools and clothes and such.
Chuck
With the help of cross-cultural gender identity studies, it has been found that gender roles are not universal. Not every
culture has the same idea of what a man or woman should do in society. In the social role theory, developed by Eagly in
1987, it is suggested that men and women get the roles they have because of what they are typically seen doing. Women
are usually seen performing childrearing tasks while the men are seen doing more labor related or child rearing work.
These typical roles lead to the formation of stereotypes, which then leads to the socialization of that gender
role/stereotype. In Mead’s 1935 study, she studied the different social roles in different cultures around the world. She
found many cultures did not follow the Western idea of men being superior to women, in fact, in some cultures the two
genders were equal. She states that human behavior or gender roles are not determined by genes but by social beliefs and
customs. This explains the many variations in gender roles across the world.
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Jolie
Eagly (1987) proposed the social role theory, suggesting that gender stereotypes come from the different roles women and
men usually occupy. These roles are often consistent with societal perceptions of women and men. Mead (1935) explored
the cultural influences on gender roles in comparing the women and men of three tribes in New Guinea. In the Arapesh
tribe, both men and women expressed feminine behavior as they are cooperative, gentle, and loving and take care of
children. In the Mundugumor tribe, however, men and women display masculine traits as they are arrogant, competitive,
and emotionally unresponsive and do not take good care of their children. In the Tchambuli tribe, men often gossip and
talk about clothes whereas women are in charge of brings back food and making tools. The variation of gender roles
across these cultures supports the notion that gender roles are not universal but are rather dependent on society. The study
also dismisses the idea that biological factors play an important role in determining gender roles.
Alyssa
Culture is believed to influence gender roles because gender roles vary across culture. Culture, defined by
Matsumoto (1994), is a set of attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors that is shared by one group of people, and
communicated to generations through cultural practices and language. Research evidence for cultural variations in gender
roles includes Eagly (1987), Mead (1935), and Goffman (1977).
Eagly argued that gender stereotypes arise from the roles assigned to males and females by society according to
what is best suited for them. Mead found masculine and feminine roles based on "gender role ideology" rather than
biology. From Mead’s findings we can conclude that cultural variations in gender roles are more likely to reflect cultural
expectations rather than biology. Goffman predicted gender roles will shift as societies shift from a belief that gender roles
are based on biology to belief in social equality. In today’s society we can see Goffman’s prediction is quite accurate.
Taylor
Gender roles—the interaction of biology and sociality—varies amongst cultures. Massumoto, in 1999, stated that culture
is a set of attitudes, beliefs, and values shared through language across generations. He also stated that gender roles are
universal. However, in most cultures women are given the most responsibility—household work and child care. Mead
(1935), in regards to the social role theory, suggested that cultures differentiate gender roles based on cultural
expectations. Eagly, another psychologist interested in the cultural variation of gender roles in regards to the social role
theory, argued that gender based stereotypes are formed through gender roles—which may differ depending on cultural
expectation. Goffman in 1977 argued that gender roles will shift as society shifts to a belief in gender social equality. Two
studies that support Goffman’s claim are those of Reinicke in 2006 and Engle and Breaux in 1994. Reinicke found that
being a father is important in most cultures and that many fathers prefer to ne with their child. Whereas, mother’s,
stereotypically, being in the presence of the child at all times. Engle argued that fathers who participate in fathering
programs are more likely to participant in their child’s life.
Princess
Matsumoto (1994) developed the Social Role Theory. It states that there is a set attitude and behavior shared by a group of
people. It is passed down through generations. Matsumoto concluded that gender roles vary from cultures. Mead (1935)
studied three tribes in New Guinea. She found that gender roles are related to culture identity. Goffman (1977) believed
that gender roles would shift when society shifts to a belief in general society equality. Reinicke (2006) found that being a
young father is important.
Megan
It is understood that gender roles usually arise out of widely accepted societal ideals of a man or a woman. Eagly created
the social role theory in 1987 that states that gender stereotypes arise from the differing roles men and women typically
occupy. Williams and Best suggested in 1990 that gender stereotypes are based on gender roles. Best conducted a cross
cultural study in 1977 on gender stereotypes with a sample of children from the ages of 58 in the UK, Ireland, and the US.
He found that the children acted in gender stereotypical ways the older they got, so that the 8 year olds acted most like the
stereotypes found in adults.
In 1935, an anthropologist named Mead compared gender roles in three different New Guinean Tribes: The Arapesh,
Mundugumor, and Tchambuli. In the Arapesh tribe, the roles of men and women were traditionally female; They were
cooperative, gentle, and caring, and both tended to crops and children. In the Mundugumor tribe, the men and women
were argumentative, arrogant, and emotionally cold, and neither men nor the women were interested in the children.
These are traits generally associated with males. And finally, the Tchambuli tribespeople had reversed roles. The women
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were responsible for tasks generally left to the men while the men sat around all day gossiping with other men and
discussing superficial things like body adornments. Mead’s study shows that gender roles are not always static
across cultures.
Kaliice
According to Matsumoto in 1994, culture is defined as a set of attitudes, ideas, and behaviors shared by a group of people
and is passed down through generations. Cultures vary from different groups of people and gender roles vary from
cultures.
Eagly in 1987, looked at the social role theory of gender roles. He found that gender stereotypes are formed through
gender roles. This is what each gender is meant to do. Mead in 1935 , studied different tribes and studied their gender
roles. She found that in the Mundugumour tribe that the roles of the mean were close to those found traditionally in
western cultures. In the Araphesh tribe both men and women present more traditional feminine roles. However in the
Tchambuli tribe the role were reversed. The men were more feminine, while the women were more masculine in their
roles. The difference in the cultures roles relied on their culture identity. Lastly, Goffman in 1977, argued that gender
roles will shift when society shifts to a belief in general social equality.
Jarren
In 1994, Matsumoto deduced that culture is the attitude, values, and beliefs of a group. At the core of society, there are
gender roles that have been pushed through each generation. It is in this, an idea that can be seen in the 1987 Social Role
Theory, that gender stereotypes arise from. It must be taken into account, however, that the gender roles of 1987 are not
necessarily the same as the gender roles present in today’s society. Once upon a time, women were strictly stay at home
mothers, but for the last century, we’ve seen a shift in a woman’s role. Goffman (1977), during the high point of the
feminist movement, concluded that gender roles will shift as society shifts and gender equality becomes greater. Engle
and Breaux (1994) supported Goffman in their study which showed that increasing access to and the increasing pressure
for father’s to attend parent classes have shown to get fathers more involved in their children’s lives. All psychological
studies aside, even looking at one’s own experiences, it is easy to see that gender roles are shifting and the lines between
what’s “female” and what’s “male” are becoming more and more blurred.
Emily
Biological and psychological differences are natural and result from gender roles; men are aggressive to attract females
and females are calm to attract males. Psychological differentiation is the presence/absence of male hormones/androgens
which affect the brain of a developing boy. The biosocial theory is that children are generally gender neutral at birth and
the development of gender identity is influenced by social settings. David Reimer accidentally lost his penis during a
routine circumcision when he was eight months old. Money suggests that the parents change the little boys sex into a girl
and so David became Brenda. He went through regular hormone treatment and was given “gender appropriate” toys.
Money used the twin as a control and published articles of success and ignoring the evidence that countered him.
The social learning theory was developed by Bandura and his Bobo doll experiment. He found that gender roles
are learned from same sex role models and acceptable gender behaviors are rewarded by significant others in the child’s
life. Smith and Lloyd conducted the Baby X experiment in which adults were asked to interact with infants dressed in
intersex snow suits with stereotypical colors. The snow suits were randomly distributed and not all the babies had
“corresponding” snow suits. They found that the perceived gender is a part of a child’s social environment. Schrout
studied 10-11 year olds and found that those who didn’t act in a “gender appropriate” manner were the least popular kids
which indicates that kids establish gender which controls peer socialization in gender development. A strength is that it
predicts kids acquire internal standards through social learning. A weakness is that it doesn’t explain why there is a lot of
variation in kids who adhere to social gender roles.
The gender schema theory is a cognitive explanation based on the assumption that cognitive processes play a
large part in gender identity development. Kids are motivated to conform to others who are in their in-group and they
model same sex influences; same sex is the in-group and the opposite sex is the out-group. Kids are actively developing
gender. Martin and Halvorson (1978; 1983) saw pictures of people in different “gender appropriate roles and remembered
wrong. Fagot studied gender policing and found that peers reinforce gender schemas. Some strengths a of the gender
schema theory are that is explains why gender roles don’t change after the middle of childhood and is depicts the child as
actively trying to understand the world. Some limitations of the gender schema theory are that it’s too focused on
individuals, it ignores other cultures, and it practices too hard to explain gender roles.
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Imani
Matsumoto described culture as the set of attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors shared by a group of people and
communicated from one generation to the next through cultural practices and language. The existence of gender roles
exist because of the past where childbearing and nursing was usually up to the mother while men on the other hand were
generally bigger and stronger. Eagly’s 1987 study explored a social role theory; saying that gender stereotypes arise as
roles already existing, they show a person how to behave and feel. That society views those certain roles fit and suitable
for a woman or for a man. In Mead’s 1935 study results showed that gender roles are not a biological thing but a concept
of culture. Studying three different tribes Mead found totally opposite and different masculine and feminine traits.
Goffman’s 1977 study explained that gender roles will shift as society shifts about how gender roles are not biological and
that everyone is equal.
LO10: Describe adolescence
Emily
Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. This is a fairly new concept as it came to
existence with the post industrial period and is somewhat of a Western phenomenon. Adolescence is also referred to as the
period of development during puberty. In Hall’s study (1904) the “Storm and Stress” of adolescence was tested and Hall
described this period as a time of turmoil where the person is neither child nor adult.
The cognitive approach to adolescence is a formal operational stage which starts around age 12. This is a time
when children leave childhood and abstract and hypothetical thoughts come into play.
The socio-cultural approach to adolescence is a politically or socially constructed paradigm. The World Health
Organization described adolescence as a period between ages 12-20 and it’s more so part of the Western culture as people
of this age in other cultures are typically showing their adulthood with marriage or other adult like things. Post WWII, or
about 1945, teens became a big group for study and manufacturing products for such things as jeans. Most teens have
some degree of income. James Dean’s role in “Rebel Without a Cause” was key to showing teen angst and helped to
develop the concept of a teen as well as culture of youthful masculinity.
The biological approach to adolescence is a period of rapid growth and redistribution of fat and muscle. This is a
time of puberty which the pituitary gland plays a major role in with the creation of estrogen and testosterone. Girls
become heavier with wider hips for birthing and develop breasts. Boys become wider in their shoulders and begin to
growth and lengthen out. Adolescence is beginning sooner because of chemical and toxins in our environment.
Schlegel and Berry (1991) showed that almost all cultures have notion of what adolescence is, it’s just shown in
different ways. In some cultures it’s marked with ceremonies, themes related to adult responsibilities, or some type of
work/childbearing.
Jolie
Adolescence is defined as the transitional period from childhood to adulthood. This concept is mainly Western as it may
not carry across every culture. Schlegel and Berry (1991) claimed that almost all cultures have an idea of what
adolescence is. It doesn’t exist in some culture, however, because they don’t give time for a transition between childhood
and adulthood. Cognitively, adolescence might be the period where individuals develop formal operational stage and
begin to think abstractly and hypothetically. Biologically, it is the period for rapid growth, for redistribution of muscles
and body fats, and for hormone and body shape changes. The World Health Organization proposed that adolescence takes
place between 10 and 20 years old though they did not take into consideration cultural variations.
Taylor
Adolescence is the transitional period from childhood to adulthood that each individual goes through. There are three
different approaches to define adolescence. These approaches are the cognitive approach, the biological approach, and the
sociocultural approach. The cognitive approach to adolescence is based on the ideal of formal operation. The formal
operational stage of cognitive development occurs around the age of twelve. During this stage, children begin to leave
childhood—abstract thought development begins. The biological approach defines adolescence as a period of rapid
growth—a growth spurt—and repositioning of muscle tissue and body fat. Once the body enters the stage of puberty, it
begins to change in shape. Lastly, the sociocultural approach defines adolescence through a political paradigm.
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Hall in 1904 proposed a theory known as Storm and Stress. This theory suggested that adolescence is a norm due
to the evolutionary changes each individual must go through. However, Hall’s study has been criticized for the lack of
cultural variation and its inability to be generalized to larger groups of people. Schlegul and Barry published an inquiry in
1991 that argued that there is an intertwining between the biological and sociocultural approached. They also argued that
adolescence is defined by situational and ancestral behavior. Although there is not a definite definition for adolescence, it
still exists.
Karl
Adolescence can be defined as the period of development between puberty and adulthood. The World Health
Organization defines it as the age between 10 and 20 but some cultures have different variations of this definition. At this
age people experience growth spurts, which means they change dramatically in size and shape. Also, adolescents reach
the age of sexual maturity and become capable of having children. Boys experience the broadening of shoulders and
increased muscle strength while girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Females also experience their first
menstruation which is called menarche and occurs at about the age of 12. And for boys sexual maturation begins at the
age of 11-12 and they experience the growth of testes.
Most people feel happy about their new developed body, but a significant number of people suffer from body
image dissatisfaction. These people feel that their body is not the same as their ideas of what a typical body should look
like. The cultural deal hypothesis suggests that puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body, whereas girls move further
away from theirs.
Some research has been done into adolescence, especially done by Erikson who formulated a theory of lifelong
development in hid influential book Childhood and Society. His fifth stage in the theory was about adolescence which he
called identity versus role confusion. He also coined the term moratorium which is a time to experience different
possibilities which involves identity confusion and the search for an individual identity.
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LO11: Discuss the relationship between physical change and development of identity during adolescence
Chuck
Every child experiences hormonal and physical changes in their body at some point in time, these changes are part of a
process called puberty. When puberty starts, a person enters a stage called adolescence; adolescence ends when adulthood
begins. In adolescence, a child is now capable of sexual reproduction due to the maturation of reproductive organs. As
previously mentioned, physical changes are an integral part of puberty. In puberty, boys and girls experience a growth
spurt and a redistribution of body fat and muscle tissue. These changes affect the adolescent’s body image, either
improving or damaging it. Many young men and women experience body image dissatisfaction. Body image
dissatisfaction is when a young person feels as though their current body is not similar to their idea of what “the ideal
body” is. This condition could lead to depression, exercise dependence, eating disorders, or steroid use. Although negative
body image occurs in both genders, boys generally have better body image than girl. According to Simmons and Blyth
(1987) and their cultural ideal hypothesis, puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body image, but brings the opposite for
girls. Identity wise, a study by Ferron in 1997, seventy-five percent of adolescent believe that they could achieve the
“perfect” body if they worked hard enough regardless of their biological predisposition to a certain body shape. This
emphasized the self-blame and sense of guilt people experienced in terms of body image. The onset of the ability to
sexually reproduce leads to the increase in sexual activity and the questioning of sexual identity. In some cultures,
experimentation of sexuality and gender identity are welcomed and encouraged, however, there are many that restrict
these activities.
Princess
There is a relationship between physical change and the identity development during adolescence. CRoll (2005) defined
body image as the dynamic perception of one's body- how it looks, feels and moves. It is how a person sees themselves,
rather than how another individual sees them. Body images is influenced by cultural norms, and standards of
attractiveness. For boys, ability determines self worth; whereas, for girls self worth is determined by looks, physical
appearances. CRoll found that 50%-80% of girls feel negatively about their bodies. 5o% know someone who has an
eating disorder. 9% of girls want to lose weight.
Bronnell and Napolitano (1995) conducted a study looking at Ken and Barbie dolls. They asked the question, "What
would happen if Ken and Barbie were real human people.?" They concluded that Ken's physical features would prevent
him from standing upright and walking. His chest and shoulders are too broad, and he has a thick neck. Barbie on the
otherhand, has a tiny, thin neck, large head, and big bust. These features would prevent her from walking correctly and
staying balanced.
Coffman and Steinberg (1996) concluded from their study, that girls in Western cultures are more concerned w/ they body
image than girls in other cultures. Frederickson and Roberts (1997) researched the objectification theory. They found that
Western girls are socialized to care about their body image. Stile and Witnenton (2002) stated that body image
dissatisfaction is a sign for depression, steroid use, and eating disorders.
Megan
Adolescence is defined as the stage of development between puberty and adulthood. During this time, individuals work
towards developing the maturity to handle the rights and responsibilities that come with being an adult. Coupled with
mental maturing, there is physical maturity that occurs as well, and every individual, despite the culture, undergoes these
changes. There is a growth spurt and individuals reach puberty wherein they are capable of reproduction. When puberty is
reached, the pituitary glands begin emitting sex hormones and boys and girls begin to change in different ways. Boys
produce more testosterone while girls produce more estrogen, causing differing physical changes between the two. The
growth two makes a difference because it involves a redistribution of body fat which the individual has to cope with and
create a new schema for themselves as their body changes. Girls grow earlier than boys, but they develop breasts and their
hips widen, while boys’ shoulders broaden and their muscle strength increases. This can affect the self esteem for girls
because the new body fat is often unwelcome because it does not fit their “body ideal” of thinness that western
society has created.
Simmons and Blyth created the body ideal hypothesis in 1987 that suggests that puberty brings boys closer to their body
ideal while girls move further away from theirs. Stemming from that was this idea that girls should be allowed to express
their dissatisfaction with their appearance more than boys and pay more attention to their appearance. Caufmann and
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Steinberg found this to be true in their research in 1996. Physical changes in the body often lead to negative body images
for girls and more positive body images for boys.
Imani
Adolescence can be defined as the period of development between puberty and adulthood; but this mainly being
western cultures, in other cultures the age that a person may start to take on adult responsibility varies. During this time
of puberty both boys and girls go through a growth spurt of increasing in size and shape but also becoming sexual mature
and able to have and make children of their own. Self-schemas at this time are extremely important and sensitive as the
young person grows into their body; exploring and accepting it. In western culture the ideal body is reached more by boys
by gaining more muscle mass and broader shoulders for example, while girls body gets further away from the ideal image
with the gain in body fat and weight.
As a person's’ body develops and changes the person can be satisfied with their body because they look more like
adults or have a feeling that there is a discrepancy between what they look like and their ideal body, which is called body
image dissatisfaction. According to Stice and Withenton’s 2002 study this feeling can lead to depression, eating disorders,
exercise dependence and even steroid use. According to Caufmann and Steinberg 1996 study Western girls are more
concerned with their appearance and express more worry about how people view them; if they view themselves as not
being the ideal image of western cultures they often have a negative body image and suffer from low self-esteem. Another
concern of both boys and girls that show a negative body image and low self-esteem is if they develop at a very different
rate than others and are only more satisfied when they have reached the same level as their peers (or vice versa).
Alyssa
Schleyel and Berry (1991) made the argument that almost all cultures have a notion of what adolescence is, even if they
don’t have a term defining it. Adolescence is the period following the beginning of puberty during which a young person
develops from a child into an adult, usually between the ages of 13 and 19. In adolescence an individual will experience
changes biologically and cognitively.
Physical change begins with puberty, the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
capable of sexual reproduction. Girls start puberty as early as 10 and boys usually between the ages of 13-15. In puberty
there is a rapid increase in growth and redistribution of fat and muscle tissue. The endocrine system is responsible for
physical maturation and reproductive functions through the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the gonadal system.
In 2005 Croll did a study on body image, the dynamic perception of one’s body, how it looks, feels, and moves. It
was hypothesized in the Cultural Ideal Hypothesis that puberty brings changes boys enjoy because they bring them to
their ideal body, while girls generally are less satisfied with their bodily changes. Coffman and Steinberg (1996) found
that in western culture girls were more concerned about their appearance and how people view them. Girls in western
culture want to be attractive and accepted by society. A negative self-image and low self-esteem could arise from the girls
not being accepted by society. Frederickson and Roberts’ objectification theory (1997) states that western girls are raised
into thinking about their appearance and how others will view them. They believe anxiety may arise from these concerns.
Stile and Witherton (2002) found dissatisfaction with body with body image was a strong predictor of depression, eating
disorders, and exercise dependence. Ferron (1997) found that 75% of Americans did not believe in a biological
predisposition, but that thought through diet and exercise an ideal body image could be attained.
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LO12: Examine psychological research into adolescence
Hannah
Adolescence can be cognitively defined as the time when the first formal operational though develops. According to a
sociocultural standpoint, adolescence is a politically/socially constructed paradigm that sets approximate years for when
an individual is in the adolescent stage. Biologically, adolescence is a period an individual experiences when they grow
rapidly, tissue and fat are redistributed, and reproduction becomes a possibility due to the pituitary glands release of
hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. Erik Erikson (1968) and James Marcia are two luminaries associated with the
psychology of adolescence.
Erikson, a Freud follower, strayed a little from his theories but maintained the idea of stages that an individual
goes through. The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory is “Identity vs. Role Confusion” in which an individual strives to achieve
his or her own identity formation – when a person figures out who they are. Erikson also came up with four ideas that
adolescents have trouble processing: intimacy, time, negative identity, and industry. It also stated that the psychosocial
moratorium teenagers experienced was recognized by those who are around such individuals and was described as being a
time for teens to try out different styles to see where they fit best. Unfortunately, Erikson’s theories were never able to be
tested.
James Marcia reformulated Erikson’s theories so they were able to be tested empirically. Marcia claims that
finding an identity requires an individual to experience an identity crisis. Four possible outcomes were thought to be
probable from the identity crisis process. The first outcome is Identity Achievement in which the individual passed
through the crisis and made a commitment to a chosen identity. The second outcome is Identity Foreclosure in which no
identity crisis is entered because an identity was chosen from them by others. The third outcome is an Identity
Moratorium in which the individual in currently in a crisis and is exploring possible role options but has yet to make a
commitment. The fourth, and last, outcome is Identity Diffusion in which the individual has no sense of identity and
actively avoids considering role options in any way possible.
Kaliice
In 1968 Erik H. Erikson developed the theory of psychosocial development. Within his theory one of his main points was
identity vs. role formation. Identity is the way that we view ourselves and identity formation is the process of relying on
one's self instead of parents. This is the process that raises the question, "who am I?", which causes a person to form a
sense of identity. During this process or a "crisis" which it is known as, a person can suffer from role confusion. This is
when a person is confused about identity and their role in society.
Other parts of this theory that help shape a person's identity consist of four main parts; intimacy, time, negative identity,
and industry. Intimacy are the fears to commitment to others because it may cause a loss of identity. Time is when
teenagers think they will live forever, they don't believe that time will bring change and have a fear that time will bring
change. Negative identity is the negative look at family behavior. Industry is when teenagers can't concentrate due to
having too much energy.
Offer in 1981, Espen in 1990, and Rutter in 1976 all did studies that tested Erikson's theory. Offer, disagreed with
Erikson's theory and found that most teenagers can be described as confident, happy and satisfied. Espen study supported
Erikson's theory, he conducted a longitudinal study to test the theory. He looked at letters written from a teenager to her
teacher over a span of over four years. Espen found that their was a change in themes in which were talked about. Rutter
found that only a minority of adolescence show signs of having a crisis.
Jarren
Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood, and it wasn’t until after the industrial revolution
that it was used as a term to describe preteens/teens. In fact, adolescence is a fairly recent western phenomenon (Hall
1904).
In 1968, Erikson developed a theory of psychosocial development in which he outlined stages of life. His fifth
stage, which concerns adolescence (ages 12-18), was coined as a time of identity crisis and asks the questions “Who am
I?” and “What can I be?” It is a period highly important in order for people to develop a strong sense of personal identity.
This stage is marked by physical growth and hormonal changes, also known as puberty. Erikson outlined four major
dangers at this stage in a person’s life–intimacy issues, time management issues, negative identity issues, and industry
(societal) issues.
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Erikson’s theory has been both supported and shunned. In 1990, Espin et al. did a longitudinal study on a young
girl sending letters to a teacher about the traumatic things happening in her life. Espin found different stages of life
described by Erikson were apparent in throughout her writing. This study; however, cannot be applied to a wide
population because of the lack of data. Rutter et al. (1976) completely refuted Erikson’s work by claiming that adolescents
don’t experience a developmental identity crisis. Through his research, he surveyed and interviewed parents and their
children and found that most children are not in conflict with their parents nor are they depressed or unhappy.
Overall, it is noted that Erikson’s theory is more descriptive and less explanatory and cannot be applied
worldwide. On the other hand, Erikson’s work has much validity and has gone on to spark more research.
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