Biology 1 Outline and Objectives
Unit 1 The Science of Biology
Chapter 1
General Outcome
1.0 The students should be able to recognize the basic characteristics of life and describe the nature of
science.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
1.1 List the major properties of life.
1.2 Explain how science is distinguished from other ways of seeking understanding of life.
1.3 Explain the significance of major unifying themes of modern biology.
1.4 Explain the limitations of science.
1.5 Identify how the steps in the scientific process were used to determine the effects of CFCs on the earth’s
ozone layer.
1.6 Be able to define the following terms.
The Scientific Process
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Stages of scientific investigation
Observation
Hypothesis
Predictions
Controlled experiment (testing)
Control experiment
1 Variable experiment
Scientific Theory
Properties
Cellular organization
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Reproduction
Heredity
Biological Themes
Evolution
The flow of energy
Cooperation
Structure determines function
Homeostasis
Explain this statement: The process of science does not work to discover truth.
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Unit 2 The Chemistry of Life
Chapter 3
General Outcome:
2.0 The students should be able to explain the structure of atoms, chemical bonding, properties of water, and
the groups of organic molecules associated with life.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
2.1 Explain how the structure of an atom determines its chemical properties and the kinds of bonds it can
form.
2.2 Describe and explain ionic and covalent bonding.
2.3 Name the elements that make up the majority of all living matter.
2.4 Recognize the structure of the water molecule, showing areas of positive and negative charge.
2.5 Describe a hydrogen bond.
2.6 List the major chemical and physical properties of water which result from the hydrogen bonding between
water molecules
2.7 Describe the ionization of water and describe the pH scale.
2.8 Explain why the carbon atom plays a central role in the formation of organic molecules.
2.9 Describe the condensation and hydrolysis of carbohydrates. List examples of monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2.10 Describe the condensation and hydrolysis of triglycerides and the role of other lipids such as steroids
and phospholipids.
2.11 Describe the structure of an amino acid and how polypeptides are formed. Explain protein variety in
terms of amino acid arrangement.
2.12 Define primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins and relate the structures to
protein function.
2.13 Describe nucleic acid structure and function.
2.14 Describe theories and significant experiments regarding the origin of life on earth.
2.15 Define the following terms:
Basic Chemistry
Atom
Nucleus
Protons
Neutrons
Electron
Orbitals
Energy of position (potential energy)
Ions
Isotope = variations in # of neutrons
Atomic number = # of protons
Atomic mass = protons + neutrons
Chemical bond
Molecule
3 types of bonds
Ionic bond- strong when solid, weaker in H2O
Covalent bond- strong
Hydrogen bond- weak
Water
Properties of water
Polar molecule
Cohesion
Adhesion
Solvent
Heat storage = high
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High heat of vaporization = high, so carries away a lot of heat
Lower density of ice- ice floats in water!
Hydrophobic property of nonpolar compounds that are not water soluble
pH
pH scale
Hydrogen ion (H+)
Hydroxide ion (OH-)
H2O
OH- + H+
Acid
Base
Buffer
Carbonic acid/bicarbonate
H2O + CO2
H2CO3
HCO-3
+ H+
Macromolecules
Polymer
Dehydration synthesis = making a polymer
Hydrolysis = breaking down a polymer
Organic molecule- backbone of carbon
Functional group = groups of atoms with special properties that are added to a carbon backbone
Carbohydrate C6H12O6 (H2O)
Monosaccharides
Examples: glucose, fructose
Disaccharides
Examples: sucrose
Polysaccharides
Examples: starches, glycogen, cellulose
Functions: energy storage and structure
Lipids- mostly C-H bonds, little O
Fats
Subunits: Fatty acids (3), glycerol (1) = triglyceride
Saturated: usually animal fat, hard fat
Unsaturated: usually plant oil
Phospholipids
Steroids- four-carbon ring structure
Examples: cholesterol, hormones
Functions: energy storage, cell membranes, hormones
Protein
Subunit: amino acids, 20 common ones
Peptide bonds bind amino acids into chains
Polypeptides = chains of amino acids
Examples:
Structural proteins
Examples: collagen, keratin
Enzymes- makes possible most chemical reactions of life
Example: amylase, lipase
Structure
1. Primary = the sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary
Denaturation
Functions: structural, enzymes (catalyst)
Nucleic acids
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Subunit: nucleotide = 5-carbon sugar (2 types), phosphate (PO4), nitrogen-containing base (4 types)
Function: Information storage for the message of life
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) = chemical blue print of an organism
Double helix- base pairing
Adenine – thymine (A-T)
Guanine – cytosine (G-C)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Unit 3 Cells / Energy and Life / How Cells Acquire Energy
Chapter 4, 5, 6
General Outcome
3.0 The students should be able to describe a theory of the origin of cells, distinguish prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells, list cell organelles and their functions, describe membrane function, and detail the phases of
mitosis and their significance.
3.1 The students should be able to explain: 1) the energy requirements of cells, 2) the central role of ATP, 3)
the generation of ATP during cellular respiration, 4) the production of food by photosynthesis, and 5) the role
of enzymes in controlling chemical processes in cells.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
3.1 Define the terms heterotroph, autotroph, prokaryote, and eukaryote.
3.2 Describe the structure of a cell membrane and a cell wall. Explain how they differ in function.
3.3 Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and the following cell organelles: ribosome,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, lysosome, chloroplast, mitochondrion, and vacuole.
3.4 Describe microtubules and microfilaments and their role in support and movement.
3.5 Discuss the biological importance of maintaining a chemical composition that is different from that of the
surrounding medium.
3.6 Explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.
3.7 Compare and contrast movement through the cell membrane by diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion,
and active transport.
3.8 Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.
3.9 Explain how most living things are dependent upon the radiant energy of the sun.
3.10 Describe an oxidation-reduction reaction.
3.11 Describe the biological importance of enzymes and coenzymes and explain how they work.
3.12 Explain why ATP is often called the "universal energy currency" of the cell and describe how it performs
its important function.
3.13 Recognize the summary equation for the oxidation of glucose to form carbon dioxide and water.
3.14 Detail the anaerobic process of fermentation in microorganisms and the production of lactic acid in
human muscle during vigorous exercise.
3.15 Describe glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain; list where each occurs in the cell,
relative energy yield, and major events of each phase.
3.16 Recognize the overall equation for photosynthesis.
3.17 Recognize that life depends upon the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and the chemical
process of photosynthesis.
3.18 Describe the events of the light dependent and light independent reactions (Calvin cycle) of
photosynthesis, explaining how the latter reactions depend on the products of the former reactions.
3.19 Recognize that the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis create building block molecules for
plant cell macromolecules.
3.20 Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
3.21 Define the following terms:
Chapter 4 Cells
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Cell theory
4 principals of cell theory
Cell surface to volume ratio
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Phospholipid bilayer
Membrane proteins
Cell surface markers
Transmembrane proteins
Membrane defects Example: cystic fibrosis
Procaryotes
Eukaryotes
Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Microtubules
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Nuclear pores
Chromosomes
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): rough and smooth
Vesicles
Golgi complex
Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Oxidative metabolism
Mitochondrial DNA
Chloroplasts
Centrioles
Flagella and cilia
Vacuoles
Cell walls
Diffusion and osmosis
Concentration gradient
Net movement of molecules from an area of higher to lower concentration
Osmotic pressure
Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Isotonic
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Exocytosis
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Sodium potassium pump
Proton pump
Chapter 5 and 6
Energy and Life / How Cells Acquire Energy
Chemical reaction
Substrates
Products
Activation energy
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Enzymes
Specificity
Binding site and active site
Catalyst
Cofactor or coenzyme, example: NAD+
Factors affecting enzymes
pH
Temperature
Biochemical pathway
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Photosynthesis = energy from the sun
6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chloroplast
Grana
Thylakoids
Stroma
Photons
Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible light
UV light
Pigments
Chlorophyll in photosystem networks
Chlorophyll a and b
Carotenoids
Light dependent reactions occurs inside thylakoid: 3 steps
1. Primary photo event occurs where light is captured by chlorophyll by an excited electron.
H2O is split to give off O2 , H+, and a free electron.
2. Electron Transport. The excited electron moves along an electron transport chain.
NADPH is produced that provides reducing power to make sugars and other
organic compounds.
3. Chemiosmosis. ATP is made with H+ pump providing energy to build organic
molecules.
Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle, C3 photosynthesis) occur inside stroma surrounding the
thylakoid
CO2 is fixed into organic molecules
ATP provides energy to power reactions.
NADPH provides hydrogens with energetic electrons to bind to carbon
C3 photosynthesis = Calvin cycle
Circular set of reactions.
Some molecules are siphoned off to make sugars.
Some molecules reform the 5C sugar to restart the cycle.
C4 photosynthesis- common in Taft
Photorespiration occurs in excessive heat and interferes with C 3 photosynthesis to
fix CO2.
C4 concentrates CO2 in the leaf so the Calvin cycle can continue but is less efficient
than C3.
Cellular respiration = energy from organic chemicals
Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat, ATP)
Biochemical pathway
NAD+ = coenzyme, an electron carrier
2 steps in cellular respiration
Step 1:Glycolysis in the cytoplasm
O2 not required
2 Pyruvate molecules, 2 ATP, 2 NADH (2 ATP) produced
Step 2: Oxidation in the mitochondria
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Krebs cycle (2 cycles needed for each glucose molecule)
Electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and 2 ATP are produced
3 CO2 produced as waste
Electron transport system (ETS)
O2 used as electron acceptor with protons (H+) to form water (H2O)
ATP produced at H+ transport pump (channel protein)
Grand total of 36 ATP molecules from 1 glucose molecule
Fermentation- inefficient but used when O2 not available
Pyruvate acts as electron acceptor in absence of O 2
Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle
Ethanol and CO2 release occur in yeast fermentation
Exam I Chapters 1,3-6
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Unit 4
Cell Division
4.1 List essential life processes that depend on mitotic production of new cells identical to the parent cell.
4.2 Explain the role mitosis plays in the cell cycle.
4.3 Explain one strategy for curing cancer.
4.4 Discuss the two cell divisions of meiosis and their effect on the chromosome number.
4.5 Describe the importance of these 2 events of meiosis I and II: 1) crossing over, and 2) independent
assortment.
4.6 Define the following terms:
Chapter 7 Cell Division
Binary fission of prokaryotes
Mitosis of eukaryotes
Somatic cells
Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes
Diploid cells
Sister chromatids
Centromere
Cell cycle
3 Phases
Interphase
M- mitosis
C- Cytokinesis
Stages of mitosis
Cytokinesis
Programmed cell death
Example: Developmental cell death
Cancer = cell division out of control
Tumor
Metastases
Strategies for cures
Meiosis = 2 cell divisions to make cells for sexual reproduction
Germ cells
Chromosome number
Diploid
Haploid
Sexual reproduction
Gamete
Zygote
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes to half of parent cell.
Meiosis cell division I separates the 2 parental versions of each chromosome
Crossing over with DNA exchange occurs during synapsis in prophase I
Creates 2 collage chromosomes containing parts of both parental versions. 2
parental chromosomes remain unchanged.
Independent assortment of each parental chromosome versions occurs in anaphase I
Possibilities = 2 to the power of the number of chromosome pairs
Humans = 223 = 8,388,608
No replication of chromosomes occurs between Meiosis I and II, so a reduction in
chromosome numbers occurs.
Meiosis cell division II separates the 2 replicas of each parental chromosome
4 Gametes are produced, each haploid
Random fertilization results in 223 x 223 = 70 trillion possible outcomes
Generating diversity provides choices for survival in a changing environment
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Unit 5
Mendelian Genetics / Genes / Gene Technology / Genomics
Chapter 8
General outcome:
5.0 The student should understand the principles of heredity as first worked out by Gregor Mendel and
extended by others, both in regard to chromosome behavior and to the statistical ratios of traits among
offspring.
Specific learning outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
5.1 State Mendel's first principle of inheritance and give examples.
5.2 Define: dominant, recessive, allele, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype, segregation,
recombination.
5.3 Explain Mendel's trait ratios in terms of probability.
5.4 Recount Mendel's second law of inheritance, independent assortment, giving an example involving two
traits.
5.5 Define and give examples of incomplete dominance and codominance.
5.6 Define and give examples of multiple allele inheritance.
5.7 Define and give examples of polygenic inheritance.
5.8 Explain Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment in terms of chromosome behavior
during meiosis.
5.9 Explain the connection between meiosis and trisomy-21.
5.10 Give a chromosomal explanation of sex determination.
5.11 Analyze the genetics of sex-linked traits in terms of inheritance.
5.12 Give examples of chromosome mutations.
5.13 Define the following terms:
Chapter 8
Heredity
Mendel’s genetics
Mendel’s experiments
P(arental) generation
True breeding
F1 generation (first filial meaning ‘son’ or ‘daughter’)
F2 generation (second filial)
Genes
Alleles
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Dominant
Recessive
Phenotype
Genotype
Punnett square
Probability
Test cross
Mendel’s laws of heredity
I: Law of segregation: Only one allele for a trait can be carried in a gamete, and gametes combine
randomly to form offspring.
II: Law of independent assortment: Genes located on different chromosomes are inherited
independently of one another.
Epistasis
Multiple alleles
Codominant e.g. ABO blood groups
Polygenic inheritance (continuous variation)
Incomplete dominance
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Environmental effects
Chromosomes
Karyotype
Aneuploidy
Nondisjunction
Monosomic
Trisomic example: Down syndrome- chromosome 21 trisomy
Sex chromosomes
Autosomes
Sex chromosomes
X chromosome
Y chromosome
Abnormal numbers of sex chromosome
Examples: Klinefelter syndrome = XXY male
Turner’s syndrome = XO female
Mutations
Autosomal recessive, example: Sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease
Sex linkage inheritance = when a recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome
Example: Hemophilia
Pedigree
Dominant autosomal, example: Huntington’s disease
Genetic counseling
Unit 6 Molecular Genetics
Chapter 9, 10, 11
General Outcome:
6.0 The students should understand the chemical and physical structure of the gene and its operation in the
synthesis of polypeptides.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
6.1 Chronicle the experimental evidence by key researchers leading to the Watson/Crick Model of DNA.
6.2 Chronicle the experimental evidence leading to an understanding of gene function.
6.3 Describe the Watson and Crick Model of DNA and the Central Dogma of molecular biology.
6.4 Describe DNA replication.
6.5 Define introns and exons.
6.6 Contrast an RNA nucleotide with one of DNA.
6.7 Describe the transcription of RNA.
6.8 Discuss the structure and function of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA.
6.9 Define codon and grasp the significance of the tabulated genetic code.
6.10 Describe the role of the ribosome in translation of genetic information.
6.11 Discuss control of gene expression.
6.12 Define: 1) genetic mutation in terms of a point mutation, 2) mutagen. State examples of common
mutagens.
6.13 Describe the 4 steps in transferring a gene from one organism to another.
6.14 Describe the role that restriction and ligase enzymes play in gene transfer.
6.15 Describe the uses of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in biology and society.
6.16 Describe the use of a Ti plasmid in agriculture for genetically altered plants.
6.17 Explain the benefits of a glycophosate resistance gene.
6.18 Describe the use of piggyback vaccines in treating genetic defects.
6.19 Give examples of genetically engineered drugs.
6.20 Describe the goal of the Human Genome Project.
6.21 Define the following terms:
Chapter 9
Transformation: Griffith (1928) and Avery(1944) experiments
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Hershey-Chase experiment (1952): Radioactive isotopes in protein vs DNA
DNA structure
Double helix: The Watson and Crick model (1953)
Nucleotides
Purines- two large bases: adenine, guanine
Pyrimidines- two small bases: thymine, cytosine
Base pairing: A-T G-C
Chargaff’s rule states amount of A = T, G = C
DNA replication (semiconservative)
DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides at each position
DNA repair mechanisms limit errors
Central dogma of gene expression: from gene to protein
Gene expression: DNA
RNA
protein
Transcription: creating a functional copy of a gene in the form of mRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
RNA polymerase: reads a gene to make a complementary RNA version
Note: T(hymine) is replaced with U(racil)
Genetic code
Codon- a three base sequence corresponding to an amino acid.
Genetic code dictionary: universal for all organisms
Translation: making protein
1. mRNA binds to a ribosome at its starting point and acts as a template for tRNA molecules
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins act as an anchor for the mRNA
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) with attached amino acids are attracted to complementary codons on mRNA
Anticodon- a three base sequence on tRNA complementary to a codon
3. As each codon is read by a tRNA, the amino acid is released and attached to the previous amino
acid to form a growing protein chain. The used tRNA returns to the cytoplasm to get another amino
acid.
4. The process stops when the stop codon is reached by the ribosome and the protein is released
into the cell.
Gene expression- some genes are turned on, some turned off
Eukaryotic gene architecture
Exons- DNA containing coding information for amino acids
Introns- ‘extra’ DNA that must be removed from the mRNA (90% of human genome)
Mutations
Point mutations (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism or SNP)
Mutagens
Examples: chemicals: cigarette tar, diesel exhaust, pesticides, stomach acid
UV radiation (other radiation too)
Chapter 10
Genetic engineering: moving genes from one organism to another
Gene transfer- 4 steps
1. Cleaving DNA
Restriction enzymes cuts DNA
Gel electrophoresis separates cut fragments
Sticky ends bind complementary base pairs of other DNA fragments
2. Recombining DNA
Ligase enzymes joins cut fragments into the DNA vectors
Vector is used to carry new gene into an organism
Plasmid
Viral DNA
3. Cloning is used to make copies of the inserted gene
Clone library: a collection of an organism’s genome in fragment form inserted into vectors
4. Screening for a gene of interest
Probe
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
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The PCR cycle
1. Denature with heat to separate DNA strands
2. Primers added to start the sequence
3. Primers extended with heat stable DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase)
DNA ‘fingerprint’: amplify DNA with PCR, cut with restriction enzyme, separate fragments with electric field
Genetic engineering examples
Glyphosate resistance gene for crop plants
Pest resistance with the Bt gene
Genetically modified (GM) ‘Golden rice’ with iron and Vit A enhancements
Genetically engineered drugs
Insulin to control blood sugar
Anticoagulants to dissolve blood clots
Factor VIII to clot blood
Gene therapy
example: Cystic fibrosis
Reproductive Cloning: an asexual form of reproduction
Chapter 11 Genomics
Genome
Human genome
Human Genome Project
DNA sequencing
Genes code for proteins (30-40K) and sometimes can rearrange exon transcripts to form alternate proteins
Noncoding regions of DNA make up 99% of human genome
Variation within the genome
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
Markers of different alleles that can be used to find disease producing genes
Gene exchanges have occurred laterally between very unlike species, ex. Humans and bacteria
Plant hybrids can duplicate whole genomes to form a new species with double sets of chromosomes
(polyploidy)
Gene microarrays can measure all the SNPs of an individual: a profile of your inherited traits.
EXAM 2 CHAPS 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
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Unit 7 Evolution and Natural Selection
Chapter 2 , 13
General Outcome:
7.0 The student should understand the basic mechanics of evolution and cite evidence that supports its
existence.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
7.1 Chronicle the events of Darwin’s work that led to his published account of evolution “On the Origin of
Species”.
7.2 Explain the evidence that supports the theory of evolution.
7.3 Describe the mechanism of how organisms evolve using natural selection.
7.4 Describe how populations evolve using microevolution, using the concepts of allele frequencies, HardyWeinberg equilibrium, and the 3 forms of natural selection (directional, stabilizing, disruptive).
7.5 Explain how the 2 examples, sickle cell anemia and industrial melanism, demonstrate how organisms
have acquired adaptations that supports the concept of evolution in the world at large.
7.6 Explain how species may form during macroevolution using isolating mechanisms that reinforce
differences.
7.7 Define the following terms:
Chapter 2
Evolution
Natural selection
Charles Darwin
HMS Beagle, Galapagos Islands and Darwin’s finches
Thomas Malthus: Essay on the Principal of Population, 1798
On the Origin of Species, 1859
Darwin’s major evidence:
Fossils: similar to living species, in strata with progressive change
Geographic distribution of species: different organisms for each continent
Oceanic island species: local species show strong relatedness and resemble nearest
mainland species.
Chapter 13
Fossil record
Relative dating: position in rock strata
Absolute dating: Radioisotopic dating (see Chapter 3, p 45)
Half-life
50% 14C decays to 14N over 5,600 years
50% 40K decays to 40Ar over 1.3 billion years
Fossil record shows progressive change
Examples: whales, oysters, titanotheres
Weaknesses: Gaps in the record, need a hard substance to mineralize
Molecular record
Molecular clock = the rate of DNA change due to mutation over time
More distantly related species should have accumulated more genetic changes than more
recently diverged species.
Example: hemoglobin, Cytochrome c
Molecular family tree
Example: globin gene
Structural evidence
Embryo development shows previous structures
Homologous structures show evolutionary paths
Analogous structures results of parallel evolution
Vestigial structures are structures no longer in use
Macroevolution
Microevolution
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Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium lets us predict allele frequencies for two alleles p and q
p + q = 1, the sum of the 2 alleles must be 100%, and
(p + q)2 = p2 (homozygous) + 2 pq (heterozygous) + q2 (homozygous) = 1
Allele frequencies
Hardy-Weinberg rule predicts no change in allele frequency when:
1. The size of population is large.
2. Individuals mate at random.
3. All alleles are replaced equally (no natural selection)
4. No input of new alleles from any source (no mutation or immigration)
5 Agents of evolutionary change
1. Mutation
2. Migration
3. Genetic drift
Founder effect
Bottleneck effect
4. Nonrandom mating
Inbreeding
5. Selection
Natural
Artificial
These all cause the allele frequencies to change over time for a given trait.
3 Forms of selection
1. Directional
2. Stabilizing
3. Disruptive
Adaptation (evolution at work)
Sickle-cell anemia: people respond to deadly malaria infections
Industrial melanism
Example: Biston betularia,the peppered moth
Species concept
4 steps in species formation
1. Local population adapts to environment.
2. Ecological races form.
3. Natural selection reinforces differences, successful hybrids are rare.
Reproductive isolation mechanisms develop.
Prezygotic
Geographic isolation
Ecological isolation
Temporal isolation
Behavioral isolation
Mechanical isolation
Prevention of gamete formation
Postzygotic
Hybrid embryo does not develop
Hybrid adults do not survive or are infertile
4. Ecological races become incapable of interbreeding and are considered separate species.
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Unit 8. Our Living Environment
2, 31, 32, 34
General Outcome:
8.0 The students should be able to understand 1) how organisms interact with their environment and 2) the
effects of human and natural events on the environment’s ability to support the diversity of life necessary for
a stable ecosystem.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
8.1 Define the term ecosystem and explain how habitat and community form a self sustaining ecosystem.
8.2 Explain how energy drives the growth and interaction of organisms within ecosystems.
8.3 Discuss the flow of energy through the trophic (feeding) levels of an ecosystem and how disturbing a
food web may alter the energy flow.
8.4 Explain how the major materials of life cycle in an ecosystem: water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
8.5 Describe the major types of ecosystems and how the weather is responsible for the diversity of
ecosystems on the earth.
8.6 Draw and label a population curve.
8.7 List the density dependent and independent factors that effect population growth.
8.8 Give examples of how coevolution affects ecosystems.
8.9 Explain aposematic coloration, cryptic coloration, Batesian mimicry, and Mullerian mimicry.
8.10 List the factors that promote biodiversity and stability in an ecosystem.
8.11 List and explain how humans disrupt ecosystems and ways humans can modify ecosystems
successfully.
8.12 Discuss the global changes affecting the world ecosystem caused by chemical pollution, plastics,
agricultural chemicals, water pollution, acid rain, ozone, and the greenhouse effect.
8.13 Discuss these four key areas of human intervention that will reduce global ecological changes: reduce
pollution, develop other sources of energy, preserving nonreplaceable resources, and curbing population
growth.
8.14 List five steps that can be successfully used to solve environmental problems.
8.15 Define the following terms:
Chapter 2 Chapter 31
Ecology
Ecosystem
Community
Habitat
Physical habitat
Biosphere
Energy flow in ecosystems
Sun energy: the source of all life on earth
Trophic levels
Producers = Level 1
Consumers = Level 2
Primary consumers (herbivores)
Carnivores = Level 3
Detritivores (decomposers) = specialized class of consumers for organic waste and dead
bodies
Tertiary consumers = Level 4
Omnivores = Levels 2, 3, and 4
Food chain
Food web
Primary productivity
Net primary productivity
Biomass
Trophic efficiency
Energy stored in a trophic level is about 10% of the level below.
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Cycling of materials in ecosystems
Water cycle
Evaporation
Transpiration
Groundwater
Carbon cycle
Respiration
Combustion
Erosion
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen fixation
Phosphorus cycle
Eutrophication
Major ecosystems
Weather shapes ecosystems
Latitude vs. rainfall
Rain shadow
Ocean currents
Ocean ecosystems
Shallow water
Intertidal region
Estuaries
Surface water
Plankton
Deep water
Freshwater ecosystems
Lakes have three zones: shallow edge, open water surface, deep without light
Thermal stratification
Spring and fall overturn
Eutrophic lakes
Oligotrophic lakes
Land ecosystems = biome
Influenced by
Climate
Continental Drift
Glaciation
Types
Tropical rainforest
Savannas: dry tropical grasslands
Deserts
Temperate Grasslands (prairies)
Deciduous forests (hardwood forest)
Taiga (northern coniferous forest)
Tundra (cold boggy plains)
Other less widely distributed local types to Kern County
Chaparral
Semidesert
Riparian
Chapter 32, Chapter 2
Population dynamics
Population
Size
Density
Dispersion
Random
Clumped
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Uniform
Population Growth
Exponential growth model = growth without limits
Logistic growth model = growth with limits, sigmoid curve
Lag phase growth
Exponential growth
Carrying capacity limit steady state
Death phase growth
Biotic potential (population growth) = r
r = (birth rate + immigrants) – (death rate + emigration)
Carrying capacity (K)
Population growth rate = r N ( K-N) N= current population
K
r selected vs K selected populations
Example: r selected = aphids, cockroach, mice; k selected = whale, redwood tree
Density dependent effects
Density independent effects
Mortality rate and survivorship
Age distribution curve
Survivorship curves: type I, II, III
Coevolution and ecosystems
Plants vs. herbivores
Symbiotic relationships
Commensalism
Mutualism
Parasitism
Niche
Fundamental
Realized
Niche division among sympatric species
Competitive exclusion
Resource partitioning
Character displacement
Predation-prey
Cyclical pattern of populations
Animal defenses
Aposematic coloration- ‘I’m warning you’
Mullerian mimicry
Batesian mimicry
Cryptic coloration
Ecosystems over time
Disruption = beginning (ex., volcano) or change (ex., fire)
Succession
Primary
Secondary
Climax community
Biodiversity
Keystone species
Ecosystem species richness
Size
Latitude
Length of growing season
Climatic stability
Chapter 34
Pollution
Chemical
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Plastics
Agriculture
Biological magnification of toxins
Water
Acid rain
Ozone
CFC’s
Greenhouse effect: affects the entire biosphere
Greenhouse gases: CO2, methane, nitrogen oxides, CFC’s
Global warming
Reducing pollution
Antipollution laws
Pollution taxes/credits
Other sources of energy
Nuclear
Wind
Solar
Preserving nonreplaceable resources
Topsoil
Groundwater
Biodiversity
Disruption of ecosystems
Physical habitat destruction
Example: Lowering species diversity with clear-cutting
Reducing competition
Example: Exotic species introduction upsets balance
Solution: Minimizing ecosystem damage by 1) limit physical disruption, 2) maintain
biodiversity, 3) maintain competition
Human population growth curve
Population pyramid graphs (chapter 2)
6 billion in 1999 with 80 million more each year
5 Steps to solving environmental problems
Scientific assessment and modeling
Risk analysis- predict consequences action and inaction
Public education- problem, solutions, costs
Political education- public demand action from political process
Follow-through (monitor effectiveness of solution, learn by doing)
EXAM 3 CHAPS. 2, 30, 31, 32, 34
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Unit 9. Single Celled Life and Simple Multicellular Life
Chapter 14, 15, 16, 17
General Outcome:
9.0 The students should be able to understand how organisms are classified and the major characteristics of
each major group (kingdom, phylum, etc).
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
9.1 Explain the importance of Carolus Linnaeus’s development of the binomial classification system.
9.2 Cite the descending order of hierarchy taxons: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
species.
9.3 Explain why the biological species concept works well for animals but not for other kingdoms.
9.4 Explain how ecological races develop.
9.5 Contrast the cladistic and traditional taxonomy approach to establishing phylogenies among groups of
organisms.
9.6 Compare a prokaryotic to a eukaryotic cell.
9.7 Name the key differences between Archeabacteria and Eubacteria.
9.8 Explain the 5 steps of viral replication in a host cell.
9.9 Explain the theory of endosymbiosis and its relationship to the appearance of the eukaryotic cell.
9.10 Compare and contrast the 3 types of sexual life cycle among eukaryotes.
9.11 Be able to cite the characteristics of the major phyla of protists and give an example of each.
9.12 Explain the 2 main characteristics of complex multicellular organisms: cell specialization and intercell
coordination.
9.13 Be able to cite the characteristics of the major phyla of fungi and give an example of each.
9.14 Explain the symbiotic relationship called mycorrhizae.
9.15 Define the following terms:
Chapter 14
Levels of classification
Polynomial system
Binomial system
Carolus Linnaeus (1750’s)
Scientific name vs. common names
Genus and species
Taxonomy
Taxons
Higher categories
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Examples: Human being, honeybee, red oak
A way to remember: ‘Kindly pay cash or furnish good security’
3 Domains over the kingdoms
Archeabacteria
Eubacteria
Eukarya
The basic biological unit: the species
The biological species concept
This concept assumes that outcrossing occurs: works well for animals.
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Asexual reproduction dominates in bacteria and many protists, fungi, and plants.
Hybrids can be common in plants and some animal (fish form fertile hybrids).
Humans are putting genes from one organism into another. What are these?
Ecological races or ecotypes
Isolating mechanisms
How many species are there?
Measuring species diversity is difficult.
1.5 million named, 10 million total on earth?
Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of life on earth.
Constructing the phylogeny of a group of organisms: a family tree.
Cladistics uses derived characteristics to evaluate relatedness and lineage
Advantage: an objective exercise once the criteria are defined.
Traditional taxonomy: weighting the characteristics by biological significance.
Example: Flight gives birds (Aves) its own class vs. shared class with reptiles in cladistic
approach.
Chapter 15
Bacteria and viruses
Bacteria: the oldest organisms on earth, 3.5 billion years old.
Bacteria existed for 2 billion years before eukaryotes first appeared 1.5 billion years ago.
Most abundant life form on earth (2.5 billion per tablespoon of rich earth).
Role of bacteria
Recycle minerals.
Introduced oxygen into the earth’s atmosphere.
Cause plant and animal diseases.
Provide nutrients in animal digestive tracts.
Bacterial structure
Prokaryote: a simple design
Single, circular DNA chromosome. No nucleus.
Cell wall
Capsule
Flagella
Pili
Endospores
Reproduction: binary fission
Conjugation: passing plasmids
Comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Characteristic
Internal
compartmentalization
Cell Size
Unicellularity
Prokaryote
Little
1x
Single celled
Chromosomes
Single circular in cytoplasm
Cell division
Metabolic diversity
Binary fission
Diverse among species
Eukaryote
Many membrane compartments
and organelles
10x
Multicellular with integrated
activities
Many in a nucleus wound
around protein, linear
Mitosis with all its apparatus
Similar among species
Archeabacteria vs. eubacteria: the 2 domains of bacteria.
Differences in cell wall, plasma membrane, gene translation, gene architecture.
Archeabacteria: ancient bacteria
Survivors live in extreme environments: strict anaerobes (methanogens), thermoacidophiles.
Eubacteria: modern bacteria
Autotrophs: Photosynthesis
Example: Cyanobacteria
Helped produce the oxygen atmosphere we depend on.
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Fix nitrogen in heterocysts. Only a few bacteria fix nitrogen.
Heterotrophs: consume organic molecules.
Decomposition: Breakdown organic molecules.
Disease producers
Mycobacterium tuberculosis- TB, tuberculosis
Yersina pestis- the black plague
Vibrio cholera- cholera
Viruses: simpler than bacteria
The ‘parasitic chemical’ concept
Infective RNA or DNA
Viral Structure
Capsid: protective protein sheath in geometric shapes
Envelope: some viruses have a membrane like covering.
Viral replication
1. Attachment: virus attaches to a specific cell membrane receptor (protein, glycoprotein).
2. Penetration: Binding triggers endocytosis with release of viral nucleic acid.
3. Biosynthesis: virus nucleic acid directs synthesis of viral components by host cell.
4. Maturation: viral components assemble into virus particles.
5. Release: host cell lyses and new virus in released to infect surrounding cells.
Example: HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), an RNA virus
Attaches to CD4 receptor, reverse transcriptase makes DNA
Latency
Example: Oral and genital herpes simplex virus, chickenpox then shingles
Human disease producer examples
Influenza- changes protein coat often
Hanta virus- acute respiratory disease, rodent vector, located in rural California.
HPV (human papilloma virus)- sexually transmitted cause of cancer
Prion (proteinaceous infectious particle) disease
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs)
Example: infectious protein in beef causing ‘mad cow disease’
Chapter 16
Endosymbiosis
Theory of endosymbiosis as origin of eukaryotes
Living example: Pelomyxa palustris, primitive amoeba-like organism that lacks mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and mitosis.
Resembles descendants of the non photosynthetic archaebacteria more than eubacteria.
Membrane bound organelles of endosymbiotic origin
Mitochondria: allows oxidative metabolism
Cholorplasts: 3 types red algae, green algae (similar to plants), brown algae
Both have a piece of circular DNA
Evolution of sex in eukaryotes: sexual reproduction appears in eukaryotes
Sexual reproduction
Two parents, diploid (or multiploid)
Haploid gametes made by meiosis combine to form diploid zygote
Two copies of each chromosome in each individual
Asexual reproduction
Many eukaryotes use asexual reproduction for most of their life
Parthenogenesis: unfertilized egg undergoes mitosis (without cell division) forming diploid cells
Develops as zygote but same genes as parent
Example: bees, females are fertilized, males are unfertilized
Common in insects, some lizards, fish, amphibians
Self-fertilization: a special form of sexual reproduction in a single individual
Examples: plants (pea plant) and some fish
Same genes as parent but with crossing over and independent assortment
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Sex evolved as a way to repair double stranded chromosome damage
Sexual reproduction shuffles genes quickly to create genetically diverse populations
Genetic diversity is the raw material of evolution
Natural selection can defeat species that lack diversity
Sexual life cycles: 3 major types
1. Zygotic meiosis. The zygote is the only diploid cell. Haploid cells occupy the major portion of the
life cycle.
Example: algae
2. Gametic meiosis. Diploid zygote occupies most of the life cycle with haploid gametes a small
portion of organism.
Example: animal (humans)
3. Sporic meiosis. A regular alternation of generation occurs between a haploid and diploid
generation.
Example: the primitive plants such as a fern
Multicellularity on a simple scale when an organism is composed of many cells, permanently.
Colonial organism: little or no integration of activities
Example: Volvox
Aggregations of organisms: cells come together transiently and then separate to live as single cells
Example: slime molds
Simple multicellular organisms: many cells that interact and coordination activities
Example: Brown algae
Kingdom Protista: a catchall kingdom of diverse eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
Mostly single cells but some are simple multicellular forms
No complex tissues or specialized organs
Many have flagella for movement
15 separate phyla with diverse characteristics
Evolutionary relationships are not clear.
Grouped by shared characteristics, primarily mode of transportation, photosynthesis, and
metabolism.
5 major groups of protists with selected examples of each group:
1. Heterotrophs with No Permanent Locomotor Apparatus, the Sarcodina.
Amoebas and forams that move with pseudopods or cytoplasmic streaming
Amoebas: phylum Rhizopoda
Movement with pseudopodia
Reproduction: asexual fission, no sex
2. Heterotrophs with Flagella
Phylum Sarcomastigophora, the zoomastigotes, several thousand species
Ancestor to all animals via the sponges.
Heterotrophic, unicellular, movement with flagella
Examples:
Trypanosomes: insect to human blood pathogens causing sleeping sickness.
Symbiotic gut flora in termites that digest wood.
3. Nonmotile Spore-formers
Phylum Apicomplexa (Sporozoa), the sporozoans: nonmotile, spore forming, unicellular parasites of animals.
3900 species
Complex life cycles of alternating generations
Haploid cells with fast mitotic growth to increase infection. Some become gametes and join
to become a diploid cell.
Diploid cells that become spores, the oocyst that resists environmental challenges. Meiosis
within the oocyst produces haploid spores that are infective.
Example: Plasmodium = malaria. Spread person to person by mosquitoes.
4. Photosynthetic Protists
Phylum Pyrrhophyta, 1000 species
Mostly marine, may be luminous producing twinkling light
Red tides are blooms of dinoflagellates that produce toxins
Unusual shapes with a stiff cellulose coat often with silica (SiO2)
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Phylum Chrysophyta, 11,500 species
Diatoms: photosynthetic unicellular protists with double shell of silica
Both radial and bilateral symmetry
Fossil diatoms = diatomaceous earth. Abrasive used in products, e.g. toothpaste.
Algae: 3 kinds of photosynthetic protists
Green algae: phylum Chlorophyta, 7000 species
Ancestor to modern plants
Usually mobile with flagella in aquatic environment but can be in soil or on trees trunks
Usually unicellular but can have multicellular forms
Example: Volvox
Red algae: phylum Rhodaphyta, 4000 species
Red pigment (phycobilins)
Mostly multicellular with interwoven filaments and live in the sea.
No flagella.
Brown algae: phylum Phaeophyta, 1500 species
Multicellular, photosynthetic, often large and fast growing, mostly in marine environment
Giant kelp- large conspicuous seaweed with flat blades off California coast, up to 100 meters
long.
5. Heterotrophs with Restricted Motility
Molds: heterotrophs with restricted movement
Phylum Oomycota: water molds called rusts and mildews, 580 species
Parasitize living organisms or feed on dead organic matter
Example: Phytophthora infestans that causes late potato blight. Irish potato famine of
1845-47.
Chapter 17
Complex multicellular organisms
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
Characteristics of multicellular organisms
1. Cell specialization
Development
2. Intercell coordination
Kingdom Fungi
Characteristics (and differences from plants)
Heterotrophic
Cell walls made of chitin
Nuclear mitosis- a special type of mitosis that occurs within the nucleus
Fungi have filamentous bodies
Mycelium
Hyphae with or without septa
Cytoplasmic streaming between most cells
All parts of the mycelia are metabolically active
The mushroom structure found in some fungi are only a temporary reproductive structure
Reproduction
Primarily asexual by spore production
Sexual: non motile gametes join between different mating types
Nutrients absorbed from environment by external digestion
Digestive enzymes secreted into local environment
Cellulose can be digested (see on dead trees)
Cause rot, decay, food spoilage, diseases of plants and animals. Some predators.
Kinds of fungus: 73,000 species, 400 million years old, differ by sexual reproduction structures
Phylum Zygomycota , 1050 species
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Sexual reproduction: an environmentally resistant zygosporangium forms similar to a zygote
when two nuclei join.
Examples: Rhizopus, black bread mold
Phylum Ascomycetes, 32,000 species
Sexual reproduction: 2 different hyphae fuse to form an ascus with diploid cells
Examples: yeast, Dutch elm disease, morels, truffles
Phylum Basidiomycota, 22,000 species
Sexual reproduction: sexual reproduction is dominant, occurs in basidium on underside of
mushroom cap
Examples: mushrooms, puffballs, toadstools, shelf fungus
Imperfect fungi, 17,000 species
Sexual reproduction: unknown, probably mostly ascomycetes
Example: dermatophytes (athlete’s foot, ringworm), Valley fever
Fungal associations
Lichens: a symbiotic association between a fungus (usually an ascomycete) and a photosynthetic
partner (cyanobacteria or green algae)
The photosynthesizer makes organic molecules and may fix nitrogen
The fungus dissolves mineral in rock and provides nutrients.
Lichens are extremely sensitive to pollution.
Examples: rock lichen, tree lichen
Mycorrhizae: a symbiotic relationship with plant roots
Fungi release mineral nutrients (e.g., phosphorus) from the soil.
Plant supplies organic compounds to fungus.
Helped plants colonize the primitive infertile soils
2 types
Endomycorrhizae: about 30 species of zygomycetes penetrates plant root cells of
> 200,000 plant species
Ectomycorrhizae: wrap around but do not penetrate root cells of about 10,000
Species of plants.
Usually a one to one relationship with a plant and fungus species. Most are
basidiomycetes with some ascomycetes.
Unit 10.
Plant Life
Chapters 18, 19, 20, 21
General Outcome:
10.0 The students should be able to understand how organisms are classified and the major characteristics
of each major group (kingdom, phylum, etc).
10.1 Describe the adaptations used by plants for terrestrial living.
10.2 Explain the phrase ‘alternation of generations’ in regards to plant reproduction.
10.3 Cite 4 reasons why seeds improved the adaptation of plants to terrestrial living.
10.4 Explain how water can move up a tall tree from the roots to the leaves.
10.5 Explain how carbohydrates move from the leaves to the roots of plants.
10.6 Explain how plants control water loss.
10.7 Define the following terms:
Chapter 18
Life appeared on land about 440 MYA
UV radiation prevented life on land until the O2, O3 atmosphere formed from photosynthetic organism
emissions produced the oceans.
Plants and fungi first invaded the land.
Terrestrial autotrophs, most dominant life form on land surface, 288,700 species
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Moving from water to land (terrestrial living)
Plants evolved from green algae
The earliest plants formed symbiotic relationships with fungi = mycorrhizae to gain access to
minerals of life from rocky soils.
Nitrogen (protein), calcium (plant cell wall glue), potassium (regulate water loss/retention),
phosphorus (nucleic acids/ATP), magnesium (chlorophyll), sulfur (amino acid cysteine)
Plants needed to conserve water
Cuticle
Stomata
Reproducing on land without a watery environment
Spores
Seeds
Generalized plant life cycle
Alternation of generations
Sporophyte = diploid plant generation producing haploid spores by meiosis
Gametophyte = haploid plant generation producing haploid spores by mitosis
Early plants were largely gametophyte tissue, modern plants largely sporophyte tissue
Evolution of vascular system in plants on land (about 410 MYA)
Plants developed vascular plumbing
Take advantage of land away from streamside
Provided ability to grow tall
A network of tubing from root tip to leaf tip
Vascular plants are the most successful. 9 of 12 phyla.
Types of plants
Plants with no vascular systems: 2 phyla
Phylum Hepaticophyta: Liverworts 8,500 species
Phylum Anthocerophyta: Hornworts 100 species
Both are inconspicuous and live in damp, shady places
Plants with simple vascular systems: single phylum
Phylum Bryophyta: Mosses, 12,000 species
Strands of soft cells conduct water and carbohydrates.
Inconspicuous plants found in moist places
Plants with well developed vascular systems: 9 phyla with 250,000 species
Vascular plant features
Dominant sporophyte (diploid tissue)
Specialized, reinforced bundles of water and nutrient conducting tissue
Specialized body form: roots, stems (shoots), leaves
Seedless vascular plants: 4 of 9 modern phyla
Free-living sperm require water for fertilization
Phylum Pterophyta: Ferns, the most abundant phyla with 12,000 species
Can be small to tall (24 m)
Life cycle of ferns
Independent sporophyte (large) and gametophyte (small)
Fronds: vertical leaves with spore forming structures on backside of frond
Plants with seeds: a key evolutionary advance for land domination
Seeds are plant embryos surrounded by a durable, watertight, cover that improves survival
on land.
1. Dispersal of seeds to new habitats possible
2. Dormancy allows plants to postpone development until conditions are favorable.
3. Germination (the reinitiation of growth) permits development to be synchronized
the seasons.
4. Nourishment is provided to the embryo by endosperm until the seedling is
established
Gymnosperms: the first seed plants, 4 phyla
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Example
Phylum Coniferophyta: 600 species, seed produced in cones
Examples: all in California
Tallest tree = Sequoia sempervirens, coastal redwood
Largest tree = Sequoidendron gigantea, mountian
sequoia redwood
Oldest tree = bristlecone pine
All have cones, so called conifers
Needle like leaves are adaptation to avoid water loss
Life cycle
Seed cones = eggs, pollen cones = sperm ( yellow pollen grains)
Profuse amount of pollen produced with wind pollination
Zygote forms new sporophyte that arrests as a seed
Angiosperms: the most successful plants with 250,000 species
Phylum Anthophyta: the flowering plants
Half the calories humans consume originate in 3 species: rice, corn and
wheat
Angiosperms solved the problem of having efficient sex when anchored to
the ground (to gain nutrients): induce insects and other animals to
participate as a third party!
Different kinds of flowers
Yellow or blue sweet smelling = bee pollinators
20,000 bee species
Long, slender floral tubes, nectar, with platform = butterfly with long
proboscis
White, heavily scented flowers = night time pollinators (moths)
Red flowers, little smell = humming birds, sun birds (invisible to
insects)
Small greenish, odorless = wind pollinators (oak, birch, grasses)
Seed dispersal by fruit
Fruit = mature ripened ovary with seeds surrounded by a carpal
Fruits taste good to animals so they will eat them and disperse the
seeds to far away places.
Chapter 18, 19, 20
Structure and function of vascular plant tissues
Basic organization
Root: below ground portion, penetrates ground and anchors plant, absorbs water and
mineral ions
Shoot: above ground portion
Stems: framework for positioning leaves
Leaves: most photosynthesis (food production) occurs here
Most chlorophyll containing cells located here (green color)
Combination of vascular bundle tissue and photosynthetic parenchyma
Cells with large open areas for gas exchange
Cuticle: waxy layer over epidermis toward sunny side
Stomata: open close valves on leaf bottom
All higher vascular plants share this theme: rose, pine, cactus
Conducting tissue: elongated cells stacked end to end
Phloem
Conduct carbohydrates away from leaves to other parts of plant
Xylem
Conduct water and minerals up from the roots
Water movement and regulation
Transpiration: Water reaches leaves from roots and exits through the stomata
(90%)
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Cohesion-Adhesion-Tension theory
Polar water molecules are ‘sticky’ and cling to each other and capillary structure of
vascular tissue
Atmospheric pressure pushes water up the plant tubing 10.4 meters
Evaporation from leaves creates vacuum and water rises above 10.4 m
Regulation of stomata opening and closing (K+ important ion)
Must be open for CO2 entry and O2 exit
Must be closed when under water stress
Turgid (high water content) guard cells are open
Usually open in day and close at night
Leaf size
Carbohydrate transport
Sugars (mainly sucrose) move from the high concentration (leaf) to low concentration (root)
for storage.
Water moves from high concentration (roots) to lower concentration (leaves)
Translocation of sugar in phloem due to mass flow developed by osmosis
Growth
Primary growth
Apical meristem: growth plate at tip of plant creates taller growth
Early vascular plants (lycophyte trees, ferns) only had a primary meristem so were tall and
slender (10 to 35 meters).
Age of Coal- these plants formed the fossil fuels we use today
Secondary growth
Lateral meristem: cylinders of growth tissue around the plant to create wider shoots and
roots
Vascular cambium
Wood with growth rings
Large light rings = spring-summer growth
Thin, Dark rings = winter-fall growth
Cork cambium
Secondary growth appeared about 380 MYA
Thick-trunked and tall trees of today, 120 m high, 11 meters diameter
(redwood)
The flower of angiosperms
Reproductive organs with sophisticated pollination structures arranged in whorls
1. Sepals: modified leaves to protect flower as a bud, usually green
2. Petals: often vividly colored, forming the corolla
3. Stamens, slender, threadlike filaments with swollen terminal anthers where pollen
develops
4. Carpel: a case that enclosed the egg cells.
Ovary
Stigma
Plant hormones
Auxin: regulates plants cell growth
2,4,-D synthetic auxin , kills by growth acceleration in broadleaf dicots
2,4,5-T – ‘agent orange’ herbicide. Contaminated with dioxin, an endocrine disrupter.
Ethylene- ripens fruit. Example: green tomatoes
CO2 has opposite effect
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Unit 11 Kingdom Animalia: Evolution and History of Animal Life
Chapter 21
General Outcome:
11.0
The students should be able to understand the basic evolutionary progression of animal
characteristics among the major animal phyla, discuss the major events of terrestrial vertebrate natural
history, and chronicle the major events of human evolution.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this unit, the students should be able to:
Describe Discuss Define Chronicle Cite Characterize Explain Give example
11.1 Cite the 9 major evolutionary stages (innovations) represented in the 9 animal phyla presented.
11.2 Define the following terms and concepts:
Chapter 21
Animal characteristics
Multicellular heterotrophs
No cells walls so cells are flexible allowing for rapid movement
Reproduce by sexual reproduction: the production of haploid gametes with diploid zygote formation
No alternation of haploid and diploid generations as in plants.
Nonreproductive animal tissues are diploid with few exceptions
Kingdom Animalia: 36 phyla
Subkingdom Parazoa: no definite symmetry or tissues, 1 phylum
Subkingdom Eumetazoa: definite shape and symmetry, tissues organized into organs, 35 phyla
9 major evolutionary stages (innovations) in animals
1. Multicellularity
2. Symmetry and tissues
3. Internal organs and bilateral symmetry
4. Body cavity
5. Coelom
6. Segmentation
7. Jointed appendages and exoskeleton
8. Deuterostome development and endoskeleton
9. Notochord
Phylum Porifera: the Sponges, 5000 species, only member of Parazoa
Key evolutionary advance: multicellularity
No symmetry or tissues
Filter feeder
Evolved from a unicellular protist = choanoflagellates
Phylum Cnidaria : Cnidarians, the jellyfish, hydra, sea anemones, corals
Key evolutionary advance: symmetry and tissues
Radial symmetry: parts arranged around a central axis
Tissues: specialized cells that act as a unit
Extracellular digestion in a gut cavity
3 embryonic tissues found in eumetazoans
Ectoderm: skin and nervous tissue
Mesoderm: muscles and skeleton (not in Cnidarians, appears in
Platyhelminthes)
Endoderm: digestive organs and intestine
Carnivores with stinging cnidoyctes with a nematocyst (harpoon)
2 body forms possible:
Medusae: the jellyfish, a free-floating, gelatinous, umbrella-shaped body
Polyp: a sessile, cylindrical, pipe-shaped body
Phylum Platyhelminthes: solid worms, 20,000 species, mostly parasites of animals
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Key evolutionary advance: internal organs and bilateral symmetry with a head
Bilateral symmetry: a right and left half that are mirror images
Dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior
Cephalization: a distinct head with specialized sensory organs
Designed for active, mobile life
Head in front to sense the environment for food, danger, etc.
Internal organs develop from mesoderm
Acoelomate: no body cavity with organs imbedded in a solid body
No circulation systems so body must be flat to allow for diffusion.
Example: Planaria, the common flat worm; Schistosoma, the blood fluke
Phylum Nematoda: roundworms, 12,000 species
Key evolutionary advance: body cavity
Pseudocoelomate: a cavity (pseudocoel) located between the endoderm and
mesoderm that has 3 advantages:
Circulation: better circulation, larger bodies possible
Movement: allows muscle driven body movement
Organ function: organs not deformed by movement
Nematodes are abundant in soil: millions per square meter
Important plant parasites
Phylum Mollusca: Mollusks, 110,000 species, mostly marine
Key evolutionary advance: coelom, a body cavity completely enclosed in mesoderm
Primary induction: the interaction of embryonic tissues to form complex organs
Example: stomach
Circulation system of vessels and heart muscle carries nutrients and wastes
Body plan: head, central section with organs, foot
Examples: 3 major classes
Gastropods: snails and slugs
Bivalves: clams, oysters, scallops
Cephalopods: octopuses, squids
Phylum Annelida: segmented annelid worms, 11,100 species, mostly marine
Key evolutionary advance: segmentation, the building of a body from similar segments
Repeating segments can act independently
Segments can evolve for different functions
Connections between segments
Circulatory system delivers nutrients and removes wastes
Nervous system links all segments to a central brain for coordinated activity
Example: earthworm
Body plan is a tube within a tube, a digestive tract within a coelom, surrounded by repeated
segments of muscle.
Segmentation underlies body organization of all advanced coelomate animals
Phylum Arthropoda: Arthropods, the most abundant eukaryotes on earth (2/3 of all named
species)
Key evolutionary advances: jointed appendages and exoskeleton
Jointed appendages: used for movement (legs, arms, wings), chewing (mouth parts)
Exoskeleton: rigid outer skeleton of chitin
Advantages: Muscle attachment, protection, prevent moisture loss
Disadvantage: too heavy to support a large body
Most arthropods about 1 mm long
Body plan: coelom, segmented body, jointed appendages
Head with chewing appendages, thorax with legs (wings), and abdomen formed from fused
segments
Tracheae: breathing tubes with spiracles (outer openings)
Special senses: antennae, compound eyes
Examples
Chelicerates: arthropods without jaws, horseshoe crabs and extinct trilobites, arachnids
Class Arachnida: spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, daddy long legs
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Mandibulates: arthropods with jaws (mandibles)
Subphylum Crustacea, the crustaceans, ‘insects of the sea’,
35,000 species
Many segments with appendages resembling their annelid ancestors
Appendages on abdomen and thorax, 2 pair of antennae
Crabs, shrimps, lobsters, crayfish, barnacles, pillbugs, copepods
Subphylum Uniramia: insects, centipedes, millipedes
Class Insecta: the insects, most abundant eukaryotes by numbers of
species and individuals
Appendages on thorax, Malpighian tubes eliminate wastes
Occupy almost every conceivable habitat on land and fresh water
Examples: Termites, fleas, bees, butterflies and moths, body lice
Phylum Echinodermata: Echinoderms, marine, mostly bottom dwelling animals. 6000 species.
Key evolutionary advances: deuterostome development and endoskeleton
Deuterostome embryonic development
Identical cells in early embryo differentiate under influence of DNA
Protostomes develop by cell position in embryo
Anus develops from blastopore, not mouth
Protostome mouth develops from blastopore
Endoskeleton: ‘spiny skin’
Calcium rich plates form within a delicate skin
Plates fuse as tough spiny layer as animals becomes an adult
Acts much the same as endoskeleton
Body plan
Bilateral symmetry as larvae but radial as adult
Water vascular system for locomotion: tiny tube feet
Extend by closed sac under water pressure
Pull foot back by muscle contraction
Regeneration of a whole individual from a single arm
Phylum Chordata: the chordates, vertebrates, tunicates, lancets. 50,300 species
Key evolutionary advance: notochord
3 Characteristics of chordates
1. Notochord: long stiff rod along back of early chordates
Muscles attached to rod for swimming movement
2. Nerve cord: dorsal nerve cord that distributes nerves to all parts of the body
3. Pharyngeal slits: slits behind mouth in a muscular tube (pharynx) connected to the
digestive tube. (Relics of aquatic ancestry)
Body plan
Segmented with distinct blocks of muscle
Most with true endoskeleton and jointed appendages
Bone and cartilage skeleton: strong (calcium carbonate) but flexible (collagen)
Most are vertebrates
Backbone: notochord replaced by bony vertebral column with nerve cord inside
Head: well differentiated head with a brain encased in a skull
Exam 4 Chapters 14 – 21
Biology 1
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