LISA NOTE’S
CHAPTER 13
THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY AND FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS IN PERSONALITY
STUDY
KEY CONCEPTS
personality
– consistent attributes and behaviour
personology
– the study of personality
criteria
– principles or standards of judgement
individual differences
– differences in characteristics between people
culture
– beliefs and values shared by a group
epistemology
– fundamental views on knowledge
African
– native of the African continent, from Africa
approaches
– perspectives (for example, the psychodynamic
approach)
psychodynamic approach
– the approach that studies the influence of the
unconscious on behaviour
behaviourist approach
– the approach associated with studying the impact of
the environment on observable behaviour
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humanistic approach
– the approach that studies how personality relates
to each person’s unique experiences and how people
find meaning in life
trait approach
– the approach that studies how personality is formed
by enduring traits across different situations
cognitive approach
– the approach that studies how personality is related
to information processing and thinking
biological
– related to genetic and neuro-physical structures
evolutionary
– the transfer of personality traits from generation
to generation as a result of the changing history of
the human race
psychosocial
– where personality is formed through the context of
social influences
occupational
– relating to a career
fundamental view
– basic assumptions
structure
– organised framework
motivation
– desire or drive to achieve a goal
development
– stage of growth
adjustment
– emotional balance, state of coping
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physical
psychological
– relating to the body
– relating to feelings and emotions
idiographic
– relating to the individual as a unique being
nomothetic
– emphasising the general nature of behaviour
assumptions
– fundamental beliefs
determinants
– influential factors
deterministic
– relating to definite, dominant causes or influences
heredity
– genetic origin
environment
– the influences from various surroundings
research
– systematic investigation
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13.1
Introduction
The study of personality is aimed at explaining the differences between people. It looks at
what personality is, why people behave in certain ways, how their personalities develop, and
how personality can be studied and assessed. Personology is applied in, amongst other things,
assessments for selection, career development and occupational choice. Competency-based
models used in the work context are based on various aspects of personality.
The changing nature of work may necessitate the use of more personality measures, as
human-resources competencies become sought after not only in technical fields, but even
more in the area of personality variables.
The aim of this chapter is to create a scientific understanding of personality study and
work-related personality research, summarising various approaches to and determinants of
personality, and explaining dimensions and assumptions according to which personality can be
studied and researched.
13.2
Approaches to personality in the work context
The psychological schools of thought still influence thinking and practices in psychology. The
new South African socio-political order is encouraging social scientists to rethink their
theories in explaining and assessing human behaviour. This is already visible in organisational
restructuring, management strategies and the composition of workforces. The effects of
globalisation will also influence South African ways of thinking and doing.
The various approaches to personality have caused much controversy. However, while there
are some irreconcilable differences between the approaches, many have commonalities in
concepts and processes. Notably, the concepts from different perspectives all more or less
indicate the consistent structure or characteristics in personality. Most approaches also
agree on:

personality as having some structure

an enduring pattern in personality
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
motivating forces in personality

personality as a developing phenomenon

the aspect of uniqueness, and similarities in and between personalities.
Personality theory and concepts can be compared and evaluated based on the following
criteria:

comprehensiveness

simplicity

empirical support.
13.2.1
Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theories (depth psychology)
In psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories the main emphasis is on people’s experience
of conflicts because of internal biological drives, unconscious motives, past events and the
norms of society. Although heavily influenced by Freud, most writers after him have a more
positive view, emphasise a “stronger” self concept (people being more in control of their
lives) and the influence of social factors.
13.2.2
Behaviourist or learning theories
Personality is characterised by acquired, observable behaviours or responses as rewarded in
the various environments in which people function. Environments and circumstances are the
dominant influences on what people become and they may even override basic natural
potential.
13.2.3
Humanistic, phenomenological and existential approaches
Human personality and self image are best understood by their subjective existence in, and
unique experiences of, reality, as well as the striving towards self-actualisation. In
humanistic, phenomenological and existential approaches the person is recognised as an
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active, unique and free being, and not necessarily controlled by conscious motives and
environmental factors.
13.2.4
Trait and type theories
Human behaviour is characterised by enduring and consistent patterns of behaviour
described in concepts such as dispositions, dimensions, traits, factors and types. This
approach is mainly emphasised in workplace applications, especially in the area of
assessment of work competencies. The Five-Factor Model is considered as the most
integrative model of personality.
13.2.5
Cognitive and social-cognitive theories
According to cognitive and social-cognitive theories, people are rational and thinking, and
form their own personalities and destinies by using cognitive powers to create and change
cognitive constructs, processes and schemas about reality. These are called self-created
cognitive constructs. With the emphasis today on technology, the cognitive perspectives are
more relevant than in earlier days.
The socio-cognitive perspective emphasises self-regulation, cognitive processes and
schemas, and perception and memory. Self-image is shaped through relational schemas and
self-comparison.
13.2.6
Biological and evolutionary perspectives
In people, as in animals, behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic factors. Biological and
evolutionary
perspectives
study
behavioural
genetics.
In
these
approaches
many
contributions come from other traditional personality theories such as inheritance and
evolution. Personality and behaviour are seen as a function of evolutionary processes, owing
to a process of transfer. However, the impact of the environment on the manifestation of
genetic traits is not underestimated.
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13.2.7
Psychosocial theories
Psychosocial theories stress the self as a core dimension of personality and personality
development, as well as the impact of social factors on personality development. Socialconstructionist perspectives focus on the social context of personality. The indigenous
psychological movement emphasises the understanding of people within a cultural context.
Social constructionism and narrative psychology present an alternative theoretical approach
to scientific behavioural research. In this respect discourse analysis is used as a research
technique. People have their own stories to tell about their life.
13.2.8
African and Asian perspectives
In African and Asian cultures there is less emphasis on the individual and more emphasis on
the holistic nature of things, on the individual as part of the community, on the
interconnectedness of the creation, on the interpersonal nature of personality, on the
influence of culture, society and family, and on spiritual values.
African psychology explains personality and personality development as purposeful
behaviour, a unitary concept of interdependent physical, mental and spiritual dimensions in
harmony with the values of history, ecology, nature and the laws of life. The basic natural
ingredient of the human personality is spiritual.
African cultures often use stories and metaphors, through which behaviour is also
transferred across generations.
13.2.9
The cultural context of personality
Culture can explain uniqueness and similarities, and how different life roles are expressed.
Culture consists of collective norms, values, beliefs, ways of thinking, perceptions and
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behaviours (particularly those based on past events) that characterise the unique ways in
which people do things and which may influence personality and behaviours. Cross-cultural
research aims at identifying similarities and differences across various cultural groups.
Insensitivity to cultural influences is one of the main reasons for prejudice in human
sciences.
The application of psychology in the work context is heavily based on American and
European schools of thought, and these assumptions have been influenced to a lesser degree
by African or Asian cultures. Because Western models and standards are used
in
researching
African
and
Asian
behaviour,
this
may
have
perpetuated
the
misunderstanding of Blacks and Asians in Western society.
In Western society, psychology derives from a philosophical and scientific history, which
emphasises a positivistic and empirical paradigm of human behaviour. In contrast, Asian and
African psychology originates from a metaphysical and spiritual tradition, resulting in a
more intuitive and integrated discipline. There is more congruence between Asian and
African values than between them and Western values. This is evident from the African and
Asian emphasis on the metaphysical and religious aspects, and from their views on
humankind’s unity with the universe and their emphasis on family and group relations.
13.3
Defining “personality” and related concepts
Psychologists agree that personality can only be adequately explained if the interaction
between characteristics of the person and environment are considered. To define
personality in all its dimensions, the following criteria must be emphasised:

the external, visible and observable physical appearances, behaviour and traits, often
referred to as the “mask” (the original meaning of personality)

possible invisible behaviours, emotions, attitudes, values, thoughts and feelings

enduring patterns and consistencies, but also the dynamic nature of behaviour, indicating
motivation and change
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
uniqueness

wholeness and differentiation in personality, a person being body and mind with all its
separate and integrated functions

the necessity to accept that personality refers to a living human able to adapt to situations.
Allport describes personality as “the dynamic organisation within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determines his characteristic behaviour and thought.” This
definition integrates most of the aspects listed above and can be viewed as being
systematic and integrated in nature.
From an interpersonal perspective, personality results from interactions with people. From a
work perspective personality might be seen as those attributes that fit the demands of the
working environment. Related to personality are the concepts of temperament, character
and self.
The term “character” here has a specific meaning, emphasising a person’s emotional
orientation and having genetic, physiological or biological connotations. The “self” signifies
anything that people themselves, or through others, perceive as belonging to their sense of
being a person (describing what is “I”, “me” and “mine”).
13.4
Determinants of personality development
The influences on an individual’s personality can be ascribed to many individual and combined
factors. All these factors can be classified into four main categories: hereditary or
biological, psychological, social and external. These four categories are all about either
hereditary or environmental factors.
13.4.1
Hereditary and biological factors
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Genetic influences are related to biological maturation, growth and the changes that occur.
The uniqueness of each person can be sought in genetic endowment (especially in physical
traits and intellectual capabilities), but also in some acquired traits.
13.4.2
Environmental factors
Environmental factors may be physical, social or psychological. They are important in how
genetic potential develops and can affect psychological and social behaviours, and the
values, attitudes and beliefs that characterise individuals and groups. Environmental
influences have the function of socialising the developing person for adult responsibilities
and adult roles in marriage, family life and work.
Regarding family influences, the developing child’s parents, especially the child’s mother,
provide the type of psychological and social examples, models and rewards that will either
enhance or inhibit healthy personality and career development. Every child in a family may
have different experiences, which together with genetic differences may explain
personality and behavioural differences.
Regarding social affiliations outside the family, important people, such as friends, often
serve as an extension of the family, a place in which the child can explore and extend
perceptions of him/herself and the world. In a situation with different values and attitudes,
peer involvement may lay the basis for a culture of healthy competition, learning and work.
Cultural membership provides the historical and immediate mega-environment that
prescribes certain behaviours or opportunities. Culture will determine how people think and
feel, and what they do. The group to which a person belongs may create a legacy of
socioeconomic status and roles that relate to entrenched ways of behaving.
13.5
Dimensions and domains of personality and human behaviour
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Most theories of personality have a fundamental view of humankind that describes a
theorist’s central ideas on those things that are common to all human behaviour and human
existence. Allport describes people as unique individuals with unique personality traits and
purposeful behaviours. Personality theories use several dimensions to explain personality and
personality functioning.
Personality is described in terms of interdependent dimensions, the most important being
structure of personality, motivation of behaviour, development and psychological adjustment
of personality.
13.5.1
Structure of personality
“Structure” refers to the basic building blocks that constitute personality and how they are
organised. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck, for example, used traits as examples of structural
concepts. Freud proposed dimensions in three mental structures referred to as the “id”,
“ego” and “superego”. Structural concepts partly determine concepts for motivation,
development, assessment and research.
13.5.2
Motivation in personality
Motivation or dynamics of behaviour describes why people behave in particular ways and
what activates, energises or directs and changes behaviour. Hence, some theories stress
internal drives, emotions, motives or needs that consciously or unconsciously create tension
and direct behaviour. Others propose that people must be drawn by external forces or
goals. Still others believe people want stimulation, while others believe all people are
intrinsically motivated and use behaviours in order to satisfy needs.
13.5.3
Personality development
Personality development refers to: growth, maturation and expansion of personality in the
physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains; development over time; and influencing factors
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such as heredity and socio-environmental conditions. Some theorists stress development
through progressive, often critical stages, while others describe it as a continuous process.
13.5.4
Personality adjustment and psychological health
In addressing the concepts of structure, motivation and development, most theories also
explain personality adjustment, as well as ways to promote adjustment and treat or manage
psychological health problems. Adjusted (normal behaviour), as described in personality
handbooks, and maladjusted or abnormal behaviour or psychological disorders, as described
in sources on psychopathology, are considered by most theorists as two separate types of
behaviours. Rogers, for example, associates psychological health with a positive selfconcept in relation to success in achieving self-actualisation.
13.5.5
Assessment and research methods
The various perspectives have different preferences for assessment and research methods,
which are generally classified as belonging to either clinical or statistical approaches:

The clinical approach emphasises an intensive analysis of the individual and the
uniqueness of behaviour. This approach uses subjective means of assessment and relies
strongly on qualitative sources of information (for example, projective techniques and
narrative analysis).

In contrast, the statistical approach emphasises the use of quantitative sources of
analysis, such as standardised tests and questionnaires. A combination of approaches and
techniques are often used for personality assessment.
13.6
Assumptions and controversies about personality
There are a variety of issues over which personality theorists might differ:

Some theories postulate that human behaviour can be fully explained and known, while
others contend that knowledge of human personality and behaviour can never be complete.
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
Personality is mostly explained as a Gestalt, as more than the sum of its separate
“parts”. Other approaches use elements of behaviour to explain personality.

Some theories assume personality is related to a dominant factor such as genetics or
environment, while others recognise the influence of multiple factors.

There is still the question of whether behaviour is caused by specific influences or
whether there is merely a relationship between behaviour and certain influences. A definite
cause-and-effect relationship is seldom achieved in research.

An old argument in psychology is whether behaviour is influenced by nature (hereditary,
congenital, inborn or natural factors) or by environmental factors.

The idiographic view asserts that people are unique or “individual”, rather than merely
different. According to this view the individual and his/her experiences must be considered
as unique even if his/her responses seem the same as those of others in the same
situations. In contrast, the nomothetic approach uses objective measures such as
psychometric tests to emphasise individual differences and general laws of comparison. The
concept of “fit” in psychology promotes the nomothetic idea.
13.7
Utilising personality research in the work context
In the work context there is interest in the reciprocal relationships between personality
and occupational behaviours in order to facilitate the best fit between an employee and the
work environment. Personality, value patterns and work attitudes formed in early life may
have enduring influences in adult occupational behaviours.
A special application of correlation research in the work context is criterion research, in
which problems of validity, reliability and restrictedness are special issues. Researchers try
to find work performance criteria that are specific to certain jobs but also have universal
applications.
In general all types of personality information can be classified as one or more of the
following:

L-data or life data is information from a person’s personal history
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
O-data or observer data is information obtained through observations and ratings by people
who are knowledgeable about participants

S-data or self-report data is information obtained from what the respondent verbally tells
the researcher

T-data or test data is information gathered from standardised tests and questionnaires
during experiments.
Furnham analysed the following six approaches that are used to research personality in the
work context:

biographical or case-history research

classic personality theory

specific personality measures

analysing the attributes of work environments and employees

classical organisational and occupational psychology

longitudinal studies.
Schneider and Hough’s model emphasises three types of moderator variables that may
influence the relationship between personality and work performance:

personal moderator variables

situational moderator variables

criterion moderator variables.
13.8
Summary and conclusion
Personality study is an integrative discipline in the study of human behaviour, although not
all psychological topics are covered in the study of personality. The variation in personality
theory and in constructs may be necessary to reflect the richness of human individuality
and cultural diversity in this world.
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The older traditional theories, especially Freud’s psychoanalysis, have energised the
systematic study of personality. It is also important to acknowledge new emerging and
possibly unifying personality theories. Research efforts are still attempting to verify
existing personality constructs and to find more valid assessment methods and applications.
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