1
Culture of CAMEROON
http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Cameroon.html
ORIENTATION
Identification. The name of the country derives from the term used for the Wouri River by Portuguese
explorers. Reaching the Cameroon coast near the modern port city of Douala around 1472, those
explorers named the river Rio dos Camaroes ("River of Prawns") after the variety of crayfish they found
there. This name later was applied to the coastal area between Mount Cameroon and Rio Muni.
Cameroon has distinct regional cultural, religious, and political traditions as well as ethnic variety. The
division of the country into British- and French-ruled League of Nations mandates after World War I
created Anglophone and Francophone regions. The English-speaking region consists of the Southwest
and Northwest provinces, where Pidgin English (Wes Cos) is the lingua franca and English is taught in
school. The educational system and legal practices derive from those of England. The French-speaking
region consists of the remaining eight provinces, where French is the lingua franca, the French school
system is used, and the legal system is based on the statutory law of continental Europe. This region is
dominant in numbers and power. Tension between the two regions increased after the introduction of a
multiparty political system in the 1990s.
The English-speaking region is divided into two cultural regions. The Grassfields peoples of the
Northwest Province consist of nearly one hundred chiefdoms each ruled by a divine king (fon). Most of
these chiefdoms have patrilineal or dual descent kinship systems, although some groups, such as the
Kom, are matrilineal. Polygyny and fertility are important cultural values, although this varies by wealth
and education. The social organization and culture of the Grassfielders are closely related to those of the
French-speaking Bamiléké peoples of the Western province. Like the Bamiléké, Grassfielders often are
in opposition to the central government.
The peoples of the Southwest province had less hierarchical systems of governance and social
organization. The British appointed warrant chiefs to aid their colonial rule, and in many instances the
population rallied behind those chiefs in the postcolonial period. The peoples of the Southwest province
include the Bakweri, who live along the slopes of Mount Cameroon. The Bakweri practice rites of
healing and initiation in associations of spirit mediums that distinguish between male and female roles
and between village and bush.
In the French-speaking area, the largely Muslim north is culturally distinct from the largely Christian
and animist south. The northern area includes three provinces: Adamoua, North, and Extreme North.
Since the jihad led by an Islamic cleric in 1804, the northern region has been culturally dominated by the
Fulani. Urban Fulani are renowned as clerics in the Sunni branch of Islam. Most Fulani are cattle
herders. An important subgroup are the Bororo'en, noted for the size of their cattle herds. With their
Hausa colleagues, they engage in long-distance trade involving cattle. Other northern ethnic groups
include the Mandara, Kokoto, and Arab Choa. Major crops include cotton and millet.
Most of the southern peoples are Christian or engage in traditional, animist religious practices. The
Center, South, and East provinces are characterized by dense tropical rain forest. The Center and South
are culturally dominated by the Beti peoples, which include the Ewondo, Eton, and Bulu, and are
linguistically and culturally related to the Fang of Gabon. They are patrilineal, grow root crops and
2
peanuts for their own consumption, and grow cocoa as a cash crop. The Ewondo were early converts to
Catholicism. The current president is Bulu, and many prominent authors are Beti. Peoples in the East
include the Maka and Gbaya, both with relatively egalitarian forms of social organization in
Cameroon
which reciprocity is a key value. Forestry and tobacco farming are important sources of income. The
East province is also home to the Baka, a tropical forest forager (pygmy) group of about thirty thousand
to forty thousand living in small camps that exchange forest products with nearby farmers. The Littoral
province is in the coastal rain forest region in the southwest. It includes the largest city, the port of
Douala, and the industrial, hydroelectric, and bauxite mining area near Edea. The major ethnic groups
are the Duala and Bassa.
The southern part of the French-speaking area includes the high plateau region of the West province,
which includes the Bamiléké and Bamoun peoples. Both are culturally similar to the Grassfielders. The
Bamiléké constitute roughly 25 percent of the population. In rich volcanic soils they grow food crops
and coffee. The population is dense, and the Bamiléké served as a labor reserve population in the
twentieth century, resulting in large, entrepreneurial urban émigré population. The large urban
population is prominent in commerce and higher education. Since the conversion of Sultan Njoya to
Islam early in the twentieth century, the Bamoun have been a largely Muslim people. Sultan Njoya, a
man of unusual intellect, developed an original alphabet and wrote a history of his people and dynasty.
A sense of a common national culture has been created through shared history, schooling, national
holidays and symbols, and enthusiasm for soccer. However, ethnic distinctiveness remains, and ethnic
identity became an increasingly important source of social capital during the 1990s.
3
Location and Geography. Cameroon is situated by the Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of Africa. Its
area is 179,527 square miles (465,000 square kilometers). Nigeria lies to the west, Chad and the Central
African Republic to the east, and the People's Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon to the
south. The climate is hot and humid in the forested south and west, cooler in the highland Grassfields
region of the West and Northwest provinces, and hotter and drier in the savanna and sahel of the north.
The capital, Yaoundé, is in the Center province. It has experienced rapid growth and increasing strife
between immigrant groups (particularly the Bamiléké) and the native Beti.
Demography. The population in 1987 was 10,498,655; it was estimated to be nearly 14 million in 1997.
In 1987, 46 percent of the population was under fifteen years old. The population is growing at an
average annual rate of almost 3 percent, with declining mortality and high fertility. Thirty-eight percent
of the population lives in urban centers.
There are no reliable population figures for the major cultural groups. The Bamiléké account for
approximately 25 percent of the total population, and northerners, including the Fulani, approximately
20 percent. These two groups also have the highest fertility rates.
Linguistic Affiliation. French and English are the official languages. The approximately two hundred
fifty local languages include Ewondo and Bulu, Duala, the Bamiléké languages, and Fulfulde. Among
the less educated, the Wes Cos dialect of Pidgin English functions as a lingua franca in the Englishspeaking area and in many neighborhoods in Douala. Both French and English are taught in school, but
only those with a secondary education are fluent in both. Most people speak at least one local language
and one official language, and many people are multilingual.
Symbolism. The flag has three equal vertical stripes of green, red, and yellow, with a five-pointed gold
star in the center of the red stripe. The stripes represent the three major geographic areas: green for the
rain forest, red for the laterite soils of the savanna, and yellow for the sands of the sahel. The national
anthem begins with the words O Cameroun, berceau de nos ancetres ("Oh, Cameroon, cradle of our
ancestors"), reflecting the importance of ancestors and kinship and the desire to forge an imagined
community with a common ancestry. The feeling of national unity is strongest among schoolchildren
and has been stressed since the end of the cold war.
HISTORY AND ETHNIC RELATIONS
Emergence of the Nation. Before colonization, Cameroon was a territory of diverse climatic zones
populated by a variety of peoples and polities. The Muslim states in the north traded with trans-Saharan
merchants and Arabic peoples. The coastal peoples in the south traded with Portuguese and Dutch
seafarers beginning in the late fifteenth century. In 1884, Cameroon became a German protectorate
(Kamerun). The Germans were defeated by British and French forces in 1916, and the territory was
divided between those nations in 1916. In 1922, the French and British zones became League of Nations
mandates, with the French controlling over 80 percent of the national territory. Those zones were
transformed into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946. The frontier between the French and British
zones cut through the territories of several ethnic groups, particularly the Bamiléké and Grassfields
peoples of the western highlands. This later served as an impetus for the reunification of those zones at
the time of independence. French Cameroon (Cameroun) became independent in 1960, and after a
plebiscite in 1961, British Cameroon gained independence. The southern part of the British territory
joined the Federal Republic of Cameroon, while the northern part, ethnically united with the Hausa-city
4
states, joined Nigeria. In 1965, Cameroon came under single-party rule. It was renamed the United
Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.
National Identity. A national culture was first formed by external powers through colonization. Even
regional cultural differences emerged originally during the periods of mandate and trusteeship. A
sentiment of common national identity is particularly strong in major institutions of socialization such as
schools and during international soccer matches, visits by foreign dignitaries, and times of international
dispute. Ahmadou Ahidjo, a Muslim from the northern city of Guider, who was president from
independence until 1982, attempted to foster national integration by posting civil servants to areas
outside their ethnic homelands. His successor, Paul Biya, is a Catholic of the Bulu (Beti) people of the
South province. In 1983 and 1984, alleged coup attempts by those loyal to Ahidjo led to martial law and
ethnic tensions between groups in the northern and southern regions. Since the legalization of multiparty
politics in 1992, political parties have been increasingly associated with specific ethnic groups or
regions.
Ethnic Relations. In addition to regional and ethnic distinctions, coalitions and tensions exist on a local
level. People from the northern areas are collectively referred to as "northerners" by their southern
compatriots and share some cultural attributes related to their Islamic religion. Anglophone and
Francophone peoples of the Grassfields (Grassfielders, Bamiléké, and Bamoun) share common
attributes and have practiced their own interchiefdom diplomacy for several centuries. In February 1992,
violence between the Arab Choa and Kokoto ethnic groups during voter registration led to the death of
more than one hundred people. Violence reemerged two years later, leading over one thousand people to
seek refuge in Chad. In the Grassfields of the Northwest and Western provinces, interdependence and
conflict between farmers and grazers coincide with ethnicity. The ethnicization of party politics and the
increasing importance of ethnicity in relation to economic claims have led to conflicts between
"autochthonous" (indigenous) and migrant populations.
URBANISM, ARCHITECTURE, AND THE USE OF SPACE
The major cities include Douala (the shipping and industrial center), Yaoundé (the capital),
Nkongsamba (the end point of the railroad through the southern plantations of the colonial period),
Maroua and Garoua, Bafoussam and Bamenda (the provincial capitals of the West and Northwest
provinces), Kumba, and Limbe. Yaoundé has several monuments to national unity.
Most villages and small towns in rural areas have a marketplace in a central location that may house a
weekly, biweekly, or daily market, depending on their size. Most markets have separate areas for
women's products (produce and palm oil), and men's products (livestock and bush meat). Official
buildings are often located near these markets or along the central axis leading through smaller towns.
Architecture varies by region. In the rain forest and the Grassfields, poto-poto (earthen plaster on a
wooden frame) and mud brick rectangular buildings roofed in palm thatch or corrugated iron are
common. Traditional Grassfields architecture was constructed of "bamboo" (the spines of raffia palm
fronds); square or rectangular buildings with sliding doors were topped by conical thatched roofs. The
doorposts of royalty had elaborate carvings. Traditional architecture in the north includes round mud
buildings crowned in thatch. Walled compounds usually include a separate granary. Throughout the
nation, structures built of concrete bricks, corrugated iron roofs, and iron grillwork have replaced other
forms of housing.
5
Much of daily life occurs in public areas such as the courtyards of polygynous compounds. Privacy is
often suspect, especially among peoples with a strong belief in malevolent and occult powers.
FOOD AND ECONOMY
Food in Daily Life. The sharing of cooked food is one of the major ways to cement social relationships
and express the high value placed on human company. Sharing food and drink demonstrates hospitality
and trust. Social support networks among kin and friends, particularly between country folk and their
urban relatives, are held together symbolically with gifts of cooked and uncooked
An initiation ritual of a Bwiti cult in Cameroon. The ritual involves the use of the psychotropic
drug iboga, and represents a journey to the land of the dead.
food. Sacks of beans, maize, or peanuts "from home" can be seen on the roofs of bush taxis traveling
between the countryside and urban centers.
Meals consist of a cooked cereal or root staple accompanied by a sauce or stew. In the southern areas,
the major staples are root crops such as cassava and cocoyams, and plantains; in the moist savanna and
Grassfields, maize and plantains; and in the arid north, sorghum and millet. Rice and pasta have become
popular. Staples may be boiled, pounded, or fried; most commonly they are made into a thick porridge
shaped into oblong balls. Sauces usually have a base of palm oil and ground peanuts. Vegetables such as
greens, okra, and squashes are common. Hot peppers, onions, ginger, and tomatoes are popular
condiments. Dried or fresh fish or meat may be included in the sauce. Uncooked fruits such as bananas,
mangoes, papayas, oranges, and avocados are popular snacks and desserts; they are not considered part
of meals.
In many regions, men and guests eat before women and children. Hand washing is part of the etiquette
of meals. Whether from a separate dish or a common pot, a small ball of porridge is formed by three
fingers of the right hand and then dipped in sauce. Westernization has led families to eat together around
a common table, using separate place settings and cutlery.
Food taboos vary by ethnic group. The Bassa of the Littoral province serve a gourmet dish of viper
steaks in black sauce, but only the oldest males among the Ewondo (Beti) of the Center province may
6
eat viper. Totems of specific clans, healers, or royal dynasties are taboo to certain members of some
ethnic groups.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At the visit of an honored guest, a wedding, or a funeral, a
chicken, goat, sheep, or steer is served to guests. Special drinks, such as palm wine and millet beer as
well as bottled carbonated drinks, beer, and wine are served at these occasions. Among the Bamiléké, as
part of coronation festivities, the newly installed paramount chief ceremoniously serves each subject a
handful of beans mixed with palm oil to symbolize the chief's ability to ensure food and fertility in his
realm.
Basic Economy. The country is basically self-sufficient in food, although the distribution of food is
variable. Seasonal famines occur in the arid north. Per capita gross national product (GNP) was $610 in
1996. From 1990 to 1996, the GNP declined and it has shown slight increases since that time. Cameroon
has a trade surplus but is burdened by debt. Agriculture, including the production of food and cash crops
such as coffee, cocoa, and cotton, employs almost two-thirds of the labor force. Many people produce
mainly for themselves, selling the "surplus" at local markets.
Land Tenure and Property. Among the Fulani, land is inherited patrilineally. In the Grassfields, land is
held by fons, with use rights devolving to specific patrilineages and matrilineages. Throughout the
country, the privatization of land tenure is increasing. Access to private land titles depends on money,
understanding of the bureaucracy, and connections. Women, the main producers of food crops, are often
at a disadvantage when land is privatized.
Commercial Activities. In the towns, there are grocery and dry goods stores. Restaurants and bars, taxis,
and domestic labor involve an increasing proportion of the labor force.
Major Industries. Major industries include mining and aluminum processing, forestry, and the
manufacture of beverages. Petroleum is a significant source of national income.
Trade. Wood, coffee, cocoa, cotton, and palm oil are the principal exports. The trading partners are
France, Nigeria, the United States, and Germany. Principle imports include consumption goods;
semifinished goods; minerals; industrial and transportation equipment; and food, beverages, and
tobacco.
Division of Labor. The division of labor is determined largely by formal education (for civil servants)
and gender. There is some specialization by ethnic group such as herding by Fulani, the butchering and
meat trade by Hausa, and transportation by Bamiléké.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Classes and Castes. There is a high degree of social inequality. Among the Fulani, Grassfielders,
Bamiléké, and Bamoun the traditional social organization included hierarchical relations between
members of groups with different status (royalty, nobility, commoners, and slaves). Other ethnic groups
have a more egalitarian social organization in which age and gender are the major factors in social
stratification. New forms of social inequality based on access to political power and level of formal
education coexist with indigenous forms of stratification. Although a cosmopolitan lifestyle has
developed among the wealthy and the intelligentsia, markers of cultural distinctiveness and obligation to
7
kin and ethnic compatriots remain. Regional differences in wealth also exist: the far northern and eastern
areas have less access to wealth and infrastructure.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Housing styles differ by class, in both urban and rural areas. The
wealthiest people have concrete houses painted in bright colors and surrounded by high walls. Those
houses have flower gardens and interior furnishings such as upholstered furniture and armoires. The
poorest people live in mud houses with thatched or corrugated iron roofs, sparsely furnished with beds
and stools made of local materials. Styles of dress also vary by class; the wealthiest can afford Italian
leather shoes to accompany the latest European and African wardrobes, while poorer people wear cloth
wrappers and secondhand European-style clothing. The wealthiest tend to speak French or English even
at home, while the poorest speak local languages and Pidgin English.
POLITICAL LIFE
Government. Since the 1992 amendment of the constitution, Cameroon has been a multiparty state.
Executive power is held by the president, who serves for seven years and, since 1992, for a maximum of
two terms.
Leadership and Political Officials. The twenty-seven-year period of single party rule left a legacy of an
authoritarian political culture. At the national level, government leadership resides in the president and
his cabinet. On the local level, the prefet (district officer) and sous-prefet are the most powerful
administrative officials. Positions in government are determined through a combination of know-how,
party loyalty, and ethnic and regional background. In many areas, local and national forms of leadership
coexist. For example, the chiefdoms of the Northwest and West provinces form states within a state,
with fons sharing power with government officials. Some chiefs served as rallying points for opposition
groups during the political crises of the 1990s.
Social Problems and Control. There are several police forces, including internal security police,
gendarmes, and military police. The legal system combines the case law system of the British with the
statutory law system of the French. Theft is a common
8
Many Cameroonians have a highly stratified social structure. The intricately beaded calabashes
(gourds) and carvings indicate this tribal king's royal status.
crime, and the U.S. State Department issues regular warnings about bandits in the tourist regions of the
northern provinces. Local chiefs serve as justices of the peace and receive a small salary. Officially,
criminal law is no longer in their jurisdiction, although they often settle disputes regarding theft,
trespass, and personal injury or assault via witchcraft.
Customary law combined forms of dispute resolution ranging from rituals of reconciliation to banning
and capital punishment. A combination of discussion and the use of oracles still is used in most cultures.
Since the colonial era, the jurisdiction of local chiefs and councils has eroded. Informal social control
mechanisms include gossip, ostracism, and fear of occult, ancestral, or divine retribution for
wrongdoings.
9
A woman carrying water back to her home to help care for and feed her family.
Military Activity. Cameroon has a bilateral defense agreement with France. In the 1980s and
1990s, the military was involved in border disputes with Nigeria regarding the Bakassi peninsula.
SOCIAL WELFARE AND CHANGE PROGRAMS
The government sponsors many social welfare programs, largely through the community development
and extension services of the Ministry of Agriculture. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have
become increasingly involved in social welfare and the development of civil society. Their importance
has increased as government functions have been cut back during a period of economic and political
crisis.
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND OTHER ASSOCIATIONS
Most NGOs fall into one of two types: those with a focus on social problems such as AIDS awareness,
condom distribution, and street children; and ethnic development associations that link urban migrants
with their home villages, build hospitals, schools, and bridges "back home," and organize urban ethnic
festivals. Ethnic associations often are organized as rotating credit associations, building on a long
tradition of mutual aid in both rural and urban areas. They reflect the increasing importance of ethnicity
in national and local politics.
GENDER ROLES AND STATUSES
Division of Labor by Gender. In most areas, women are responsible for feeding their families. They
grow staple food crops, while men clear the land and provide meat, oil, and salt. Men grow the cash
crops. Among the pastoral populations, men herd the livestock and women process dairy products.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. In general, men have higher social status than women. They
have more rights with regard to marriage, divorce, and land tenure within most local systems of social
organization and more access to government bureaucracy and the courts. However, women may have
10
informal power within households, enforced through their control of subsistence activities and their role
as conduits to female ancestors. Many women are prominent in higher education and government
ministries.
MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP
Marriage. Among many ethnic groups, first marriages historically were arranged with varying degrees
of veto power by the potential bride and groom, but individual choice stressing companionship is
becoming more common. Most southern groups prefer exogamous marriage, while the Fulani tend to be
endogamous. Polygyny is a goal within many groups but is not always financially attainable. Some
women prefer small-scale polygyny for the company and mutual aid a co-wife might provide.
Domestic Unit. Domestic organization varies widely throughout Cameroon. Rural polygynous
compounds are composed of a male head of a household surrounded by his wives and their children.
Wives and children usually sleep in separate dwellings within the compound. In both urban and rural
areas, child-rearing by a close relative (a kind of foster arrangement) is common.
Inheritance. The organization of kinship varies widely, as do local rules of inheritance. The inheritance
of land is often separated from that of movable property. The inheritance of wives may serve as a form
of old-age insurance for women without grown children, since marriage provides access to land. Among
many groups, traditional titles and honors may be inherited.
Kin Groups. Most northern groups, such as the Fulani, are patrilineal. The kinship organization of most
Grassfielders, Bamiléké, and Bamoun is variously described as patrilineal or dual descent. The Kom of
the Grassfields are a notable matrilineal exception. Most forest peoples are patrilineal.
SOCIALIZATION
Infant Care. Child bearing is highly valued, and infants are given a great deal of daily and ritual
attention. Generally, infants are kept close to the mother and breast fed on demand. Once they can hold
the head upright, they are carried by siblings. Infants generally sleep with their mothers. The arrival of a
baby is the occasion for visits during which the newborn is cuddled, bounced, bathed, and spoken to.
Child Rearing and Education. Beliefs and practices concerning child rearing vary by ethnic group.
Commonalities include the importance of learning by example and through play and imitation of the
tasks of adults. Children are taught to observe astutely but remain reserved and prudent in what they
report. Remembering one's ancestors, elders, and origins is an increasing concern of parents whose
children spend long hours in public schools and often leave their homelands to find work in urban
centers and on industrial plantations.
Since independence, the country has achieved a high level of school attendance. Primary enrollment in
1994 included 88 percent of children. Secondary education is much less common (27 percent), with
boys attending secondary school more frequently than girls. Instruction is in French and English,
although the second national language usually is introduced only in secondary school. Primary education
lasts for six years in Francophone areas and seven years in Anglophone areas. Secondary education lasts
for an additional seven years. School attendance is highest in the cities, especially Yaoundé and Douala,
and lowest in rural areas. Despite the relatively high level of school attendance, 21 percent of men and
35 percent of women had no formal education in 1998.
11
Higher Education. While less than 3 percent of men and 1 percent of women attend institutions of
higher learning, advanced study is widely regarded as a route to upward mobility. Originally, the
University of Yaoundé was the only comprehensive university, while regional universities specialized in
particular subject areas. Yaoundé also housed the University Centre for Health Sciences, a medical
school servicing several African countries. In the 1990s, the University of Yaoundé was broken up into
several campuses, each devoted to a different field of study. The regional universities became more
comprehensive, leading to some decentralization in higher education. Many people pursue a doctoral
degree overseas.
ETIQUETTE
Greetings, use of proper names, and use of praise names are important parts of daily etiquette in many
regions of Cameroon. At meetings, each person should be greeted by name or with a handshake. Serving
and graciously receiving food is an important symbol of hospitality and trust throughout the country.
Respect is accorded to elders throughout Cameroon. Protocol regarding speaking and seating during an
audience with a chief is highly developed in regions with hierarchically organized cultures (Fulani,
Bamiléké, Banoun, and Grassfields).
RELIGION
Religious Beliefs. Cameroonians have a variety of religious beliefs, and many individuals combine
beliefs and practices of world religions with those of their own culture groups. Approximately 53
percent of the population are members of Christian denominations, about 25 percent practice mainly
"traditional" religions, and approximately 22 percent are Muslim. Most Christians live in the southern
areas, and most Muslims in the north. Christian missions constituted an informal second layer of
colonialism.
Traditional religions are systems of practices and beliefs that adapt to changing social conditions. Most
involve the veneration of ancestors and the belief that people, animals, and natural objects are invested
with spiritual power.
Religious Practitioners. In addition to Christian and Muslim clerics, religious practitioners include the
ritual specialists of cultural groups. These specialists may be political leaders, spirit mediums, or healers.
Their spiritual power may be inherited, learned, or acquired through their own affliction and healing.
Generally, they combine their religious activities with other forms of livelihood.
Rituals and Holy Places. For Muslims, a pilgrimage to Mecca is a source of honor. Among animists,
holy places often include sacred trees or groves, unusual rock formations, and the burial places of
ancestors. These places are often sites of propitiatory
12
A Bamiléké tribesman wearing a mask during a traditional ritual in Cameroon.
offerings to ancestors or spirits. Offerings include special foods, palm oil, libations of palm wine, and
chickens. Among the monarchies of the Grassfields, sacred places include sites of former palaces where
rituals that promote fertility and good fortune for the chiefdom are performed.
Death and the Afterlife. Several cultures, including the Bamiléké in the west and the Maka in the east,
practice divination and/or perform public autopsies to determine the cause of death. These peoples are
particularly concerned with death caused by witchcraft. In many cultures, a death is announced through
public wailing by women. Grassfields peoples bury their dead quickly but observe a week of public
mourning called cry-die. Close relatives shave their heads. Approximately a year later, lavish death
celebrations honor the deceased, who has become an ancestor. Death provides the occasion for the most
important ceremonies of the forest forager groups (Baka, Kola, and Medzan). The forest spirit is
believed to participate in death ceremonies by dancing under a raffia mask. The honoring and veneration
of ancestors are common to nearly all
13
Cameroonian dancers from the Mabeas tribe. Dance is an essential part of many celebrations such
as weddings and coronations.
groups. Ancestors may be remembered in oral literature (the Fulani), buried in elaborate tombs in the
family courtyard (Catholic Ewondo), or reburied and provided offerings of prayer, food, and shelter (the
Bamiléké). The Fulani, like other Muslims, believe in an afterlife of material rewards for those who
obey Allah's laws.
MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE
Health care consists of biomedical treatment, traditional practices (often closely bound to traditional
religion), and Islamic medicine in various combinations that depend on belief, cost, proximity, and the
advice of kin and neighbors.
Biomedical health care facilities are provided through the national government and Christian missions as
well as by private physicians. There are health centers, maternal child health centers (offering prenatal,
childbirth, well-baby, and under-five care), and private, general, and central hospitals. In rural health
centers, nurses often play a direct role in diagnosis and treatment, and perform surgical operations.
Pharmacists are an important source of biomedical advice. Vendors of prescription medicines also give
advice to patients and their families, although their understanding of disease may differ from that of
physicians and pharmacists.
14
Traditional practitioners include herbalists, bone setters, diviners, and ritual specialists who may
supplicate spirits or ancestors. These practitioners adapt to changing conditions by incorporating new
ideas and medicines into their practices. There has been a tendency toward the predominance of
herbalists and individual treatment and away from the use of ritual specialists and community-wide
treatments. Many practitioners specialize in the treatment of particular afflictions. Patients readily
consult practitioners from different cultural groups.
The Islamic medical system is derived from Arabic and Greco-Roman sources. These medical
practitioners not only are important sources of treatment for northern Muslims but also are popular
among other peoples. Many non-Muslims seek protection from evil by displaying symbols of Islamic
blessings in their houses.
SECULAR CELEBRATIONS
Secular celebrations such as New Year (1 January), Youth Day (11 February), Labor Day (1 May), and
National Day (20 May) include public parades involving public officials, party loyalists dressed in
commemorative cloth with party insignia, and schoolchildren as well as dance troupes.
THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES
Support for the Arts. Artists are mostly self-supporting, although 7 percent of the national budget was
devoted to recreational and cultural activities in 1996 and 1997.
Literature. The Fulani are known for their oral literature, including poetry, history, stories, legends,
proverbs, magic formulas, and riddles. Since the colonial period, written literature has had a strong
history in the southern areas. Ewondo and Douala authors have contributed classics to modern African
literature.
Graphic Arts. Many groups produce pottery, textiles, and sculptures that are used as everyday
household objects. Grassfielders (including the Bamiléké and Bamoun) are noted for blue and white
royal display cloth, elaborately beaded calabashes, and sculptures that include royal reliquaries. The
Bamoun are known for lost-wax bronze sculptures. The graphic arts of pastoral groups such as Fulani
and Hausa are largely related to cattle herding.
Performance Arts. Music and dance styles are essential to the celebration of funerals, weddings, and
succession to high office.
THE STATE OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
In addition to the university system, there are a number of institutions of applied and basic research in
the physical and social sciences. Many are run and funded in coordination with the research institutions
of donor countries, the United Nations, or NGOs. Social sciences are popular among university students.
Because of insufficient library resources, students have formed their own organizations to create subjectspecific libraries that are completely student-run.