GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS
Common to Sociological
RESEARCH METHODS, DATA ANALYSIS, THEORY, AND SEMINAR
(For distribution in SOCI 251, 252, 353 & 454)
Association is the connection or relationship of two or more concepts or
variables.
Two variables have an association if the distribution of
one variable changes in concert with the other. See also
causation,
correlation.
Bias is any situation in which the accuracy, reliability, validity, etc., of
data, findings, or conclusions are distorted by the researcher's or
theorist's methods or presuppositions (e.g., moral, political, religious
beliefs or ideologies). In statistical analysis, bias is a technical term
for a difference between a hypothetical true value of a variable in a
population and the observed value in a particular sample.
Causation is the principle that one variable (X) produces change in another
variable (Y). It is based on the assumption that events occur in a
predictable, nonrandom way, and that one event leads to, or causes,
another. To establish causation, the two variables must be associated or
correlated with each other; the first variable (X) must precede the
second variable (Y) in time and space; and alternative, noncausal
explanations for the relationship (such as spurious ones) must be
eliminated. Events in the physical and social worlds are generally too
complex to be explained by any single factor. For this reason, scientists
are guided by the principle of multiple causation, which states that one
event occurs as a result of several factors operating or occurring in
combination.
Concept is a word or set of words that expresses a general idea about the
nature of something. Anomie, relative deprivation, and mass society are
among the more well-known concepts in sociology.
Conceptualization is the mental process whereby ambiguous and imprecise notions
are made clear and more precise. A conceptual definition states the
meaning of a concept.
Correlation is the mutual relationship or association of two or more concepts
or variables, such that when one changes in value, the other one does
also. Variables may be correlated positively (i.e., they change in the
same direction) or negatively (that is, they change in the opposite
direction). Correlation is necessary but not sufficient to demonstrate
causation.
Deduction and Induction are processes of logical reasoning. Deduction involves
reasoning from general principles to particular instances.
In other
words, it is drawing a conclusion from a set of premises or developing
the specific expectations of hypotheses from a theory or theoretical
perspective.
Induction involves reasoning from particular instances to
general principles. In other words, it is offering a premise or a theory
about a category of events from observations of specific instances or
from the results of hypothesis testing.
It is the process involved in
empirical generalization. Although deduction is fundamental to the
scientific method, sociological analyses are rarely strictly deductive,
even if they may claim to be.
Dependent variable: See variable.
Descriptive Statistics: Procedures that summarize the distribution of
variable or measure the relationship between two or more variables.
a
Empirical is a verifiable quality based on experience, experiment, or
observation rather than on assumption, logic, inspiration, or any of the
other ways by which we may understand the social world. According to a
well-known story, purely rational considerations led to the conclusion
that the bumblebee is aerodynamically incapable of flying. Empirical
considerations force us to conclude, to the contrary, that bumblebees do
a very good job of flying.
Sociologists frequently argue that much of
what is wrong with our understanding of social behavior arises from the
tendency to deal with this subject on the basis of reasoning rather than
observation.
On the other hand, because social behavior is both very
complex and generally symbolic in character, the application of purely
empirical modes of investigation can only provide part of the social
explanation for behavior.
Empirical generalization is the process by which the specific, observed results
of research are held to apply to the general, unobserved category of
events or population under study. It is a form of induction.
Hypothesis is a testable statement of a specific relationship between at least
two variables. It is a statement of something that ought to he observed
in the real world (i.e., it is an empirical statement) if the theory from
which it is derived is correct. Ideally, hypotheses are drawn from or
based on theoretical propositions; they are arrived at, in other words,
through deduction.
Ideal-type method is a process of research, and of drawing conclusions from
such research, that involves isolating the most basic characteristics of
some social entity.
As used by Weber, it is an empirical method that
does not imply or generate the perfect or most desirable characteristics
of an entity, but simply those that are most observed. Thus, Weber
analyzed bureaucracy as an ideal type rather than as any particular case
or example.
Ideology is a theory or theoretical perspective associated with the
self-interest of a particular group. According to less common usage, it
also refers to the set of ideas underlying and informing socio-political
action.
Inferential Statistics:
to populations.
procedures that produce generalizations from samples
Independent variable: See variable.
Induction: See deduction; see also empirical generalization.
Measurement is the process of determining the value or level (either
qualitative or quantitative) of a particular attribute of a unit of
analysis.
It refers to assigning numbers to concepts or variables.
These series of assigned numbers can be used to 1) classify or categorize
at the nominal level of measurement;
2) rank or order at the ordinal
level of measurement; or 3) assign a score at the interval level of
measurement.
Methodology is the logic of scientific investigation, including analysis of the
basic assumptions of science in general and of sociology in particular,
processes of theory construction, interrelationships of theory and
research, and procedures of empirical investigation.
Middle-range theory:
This term was coined by Robert K. Merton who believes in
the necessity for sociological theory constructed between 'minor working
hypotheses' and 'master conceptual schemes.'
Multiple causation: See causation.
Operationalization is the process of defining concepts in terms of simple,
observable procedures.
An operational definition states a concept or
variable in such a way that it can be measured and observed.
For
example, religious devotion may be operationally defined in terms of
frequency of attending church.
The use of constructs and scales are
other common forms of operationalization. For example, the Srole Scale
of Anomie is one of many attempts to operationalize the concept of
anomie, an idiomatic abstraction that is difficult to measure directly.
A Paradigm is a perspective or a frame of reference for viewing the social
world consisting of a set of concepts and assumptions.
Researchers
describing the same aspects of the social world from two different
paradigms may have very different interpretations. Paradigms differ in
terms of assumptions, concepts, and problems they consider to be
important.
Proposition is a statement or specification within a theory that describes a
causal relationship between two or more concepts. A proposition may be
translated into one or more testable hypotheses by operationalizing the
concepts into measurable variables.
Reductionism:
A sociological explanation is said to be reductionist when it
attempts to account for a range of phenomena in terms of a single
determining factor. It is said of some Marxian theories, for instance,
that they are reductionist because they explain the diversity of social
behavior by reference simply to the economy.
Sociologists tend to be
skeptical of anything resembling 'psychological reductionism.'
Reflexivity is present in research and/or theory which refers to itself.
Theories in the sociology of knowledge, for example, refer to themselves
since they argue that all knowledge, including sociological knowledge,
can be explained socially. A sociologist who considers his or her own
role in a study, and how it influences and is influenced by the findings
may be thought of as a reflexive sociologist. Theories about the nature
of theory—‘meta-theory’—are also reflexive.
Reliability and validity are evaluative qualities assigned to empirical
research methods. Reliability is the capacity of a research instrument
to deliver an unchanged, dependable result or measurement when applied
repeatedly to the same phenomenon.
Validity is the capacity of a
research instrument to measure what it purports, or claims, to measure.
It generally is more difficult, both conceptually and practically, to
establish validity than to establish reliability. An instrument can be
reliable but invalid; in that case, it will give consistent results that
do not mean what they are supposed to mean. However, an instrument cannot
he valid but unreliable. If it is unreliable, it cannot measure anything
adequately. The difficulty of establishing the validity of an instrument
sometimes can he bypassed (or at least minimized) with a good operational
definition.
Research methods are the procedures of studying a phenomenon, including ways of
collecting and handling empirical observations and data.
Research
methods commonly employed by sociologists include surveys, observation,
and content analysis.
Social facts are the regularities of behavior within a social system. According
to Durkheim, social facts are the proper units of study for sociologists,
and they can be explained only by reference to other social facts. They
exist outside the individual (i.e., they both pre- and post-date any one
person's existence); they are coercive to the individual (i.e., their
influence on a person's behavior cannot he willed away); and they are
general and widespread throughout a social system. Common examples of
social facts include rates of behavior, such as marriage, divorce, crime,
suicide, employment, religiosity, etc. Public opinion and social
attitudes are also important social facts.
Sociological imagination: The set of mind that allows individuals to see the
relationship between events in their personal lives and events in their
society. This term was popularized by C. Wright Mills.
Spurious relationships are those that are not genuine. The variables appear to
be causally related, though they are not, because each is influenced by
the same other variable. A classic example of a spurious relationship is
that between levels of ice cream consumption and rates of rape. These two
variables exhibit a very strong, positive correlation: when ice cream
consumption increases, so does rape, and vice versa. Are we safe in
concluding, then, that eating ice cream (independent variable, X) causes
people to commit rape (dependent variable, Y) or, given that the
direction of influence could just as logically he reversed in this
instance, that rape (independent variable, X) causes offenders or victims
to eat ice cream (dependent variable, Y)? No, that is not a safe
conclusion. Both levels of ice cream consumption and rates of rape are
strongly influenced by season of the year or by outdoor temperature. More
directly, the season affects the degree to which people engage in certain
kinds of behavior; in other words, many behaviors have a predictable
temporal dimension. The observed correlation between levels of ice cream
consumption and rates of rape is spurious, not causal, because each
actually is dependent on a third, temporal variable. Many spurious
relationships are far more subtle and difficult to detect than this
empirical example.
Tautology:
Circular reasoning; saying the same thing in different ways;
redefining a condition
and
then
using
the
redefinition
as
an
explanation.
Not
all
tautologies
are
regarded
as
useless;
Durkheim's definition of religion (as 'all things thought to be sacred')
is both tautological and enduring.
Theory is an explanation of some phenomenon.
More specifically, it is an
explanation of the relationship between two or more concepts or
variables.
A theory is not just a description of an empirical
relationship; rather, it is an attempt to answer the question of why
(and, sometimes, how) the relationship exists as it does.
Theoretical perspective is a set of interrelated assumptions about the way
things work. More specifically, it is a broad view about the nature of
society and of social behavior. A given theoretical perspective may
generate any number of more specific theories, which then may be tested
by any number of even more specific hypotheses.
Typology: A classification scheme; an examination of types. Merton's 'Modes
of Individual Adaptation' and Sorokin’s ‘Sensate and Ideational Culture’
are well-known typologies.
Validity: see reliability.
Value-free research occurs when personal biases or cultural values are not
allowed to affect either the conduct or the results of empirical study.
It is usually thought of as an ideal to be pursued rather than as a
standard to be met.
Values are broad-based notions about what people in a particular culture hold
in highest and lowest regard. They are principles embodying ideas about
what that culture considers to be right and wrong, important and
unimportant, desirable and undesirable.
Variable is something that can change or vary, so that its opposite is a
constant. A variable occurs in different degrees (or has different
values) among individuals, groups, objects, and events.
A dependent
variable (Y) is an effect, result, or outcome; it is assumed to depend on
or to be caused by at least one independent variable (X). A researcher or
theorist uses the independent variable(s) to explain the dependent
variable. In other words, changes in the independent variable(s) are
theorized or hypothesized to be correlated with or to have caused the
changes in the dependent variable. Researchers and theorists often
specify their variables in the titles of their articles. For example, as
you skim through a recent issue of Social Forces, you may come across an
article titled "The Influences of Age, Sex, Income, and Marital Status on
Church Attendance." It is safe to conclude that five variables were
examined in this study: age, sex, income, marital status, and church
attendance.
In all likelihood, the dependent variable would be church
attendance (Y), which would be presumed to be affected by the four
independent variables of age (X1), sex (X2), income (X3), and marital
status (X4).
[NOTE: The ability to identify and specify variables is essential for
all students of research methods, data analysis, and theory. It
is also of utmost importance to the practice of sociologicallyinformed critical thinking.]
Verifiability is the principle of science by which any given piece of research
and, especially, its results can be duplicated or replicated by other
scientists.
Verstehen is a method of research, proposed by Weber, by which we attempt to
understand others' behavior by mentally putting ourselves in their place.
(The closest English word for verstehen is empathize.) Verstehen is at
the heart of many field research methods. It is most likely to be invoked
by sociologists at the theorizing and conclusion-drawing (rather than
during the data-collection) stages of research.
Wallace Wheel is a depiction, offered by Walter Wallace (1971) in his The Logic
of
Science
in
Sociology
(Chicago:
Aldine-Atherton),
of
the
interconnectedness of theory and research. Ideally, the wheel turns in
this fashion: theory leads to hypotheses which lead to observations which
lead to empirical generalizations which are then used to revise or
advance theory.
Definitions adapted from the following sources:
Abercrombie, Nicholas, Stephen Hill, and Bryan S. Turner. 2004.
Dictionary of Sociology, 4th ed. New York: Viking Penguin.
Babbie, Earl. 1992.
Wadsworth.
The Practice of Social Research, 6th ed.
The Penguin
Belmont, CA:
Cuzzort, R. P. and E. W. King. 1995. Twentieth-Century Social Thought, 5th ed.
Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Healey, Joseph. 2000.
CA: Wadsworth.
Statistics: A Tool for Social Research, 5th ed. Belmont,
Jary, David and Julia Jary. 1991.
New York: Harper Collins.
The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology.
Lemert, Charles (ed.). 1993.
Social Theory:
Readings. Boulder, CO: Westview.
The Multicultural and Classic
Levin, Jack and James Allen Fox.
2002.
Elementary Statistics in Social
Research, 8th ed. New York: Harper Collins.
Levine, John, Margaret Levine Young and Arnold Reinhold. 1996.
The Internet
for Dummies (2nd ed.). Foster City, CA: International Data Group.
Shepard, Jon M. 2005.
Sociology,
9th ed.
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St. Paul, MN: West.
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