MOTIVATION LECTURES
DEF: motivation= comes from the Latin movere meaning to move. It is the process of
arousing and sustaining goal directed behaviour. It can also be defined as an internal
psychological process of initiating energizing, directing and maintaining goal directed
behaviour.
Why study motivation theories?
The theories help us to understand how motivation/ lack of it affects the organisation
of work. The level of motivation one has affects the amount of work done by an
individual. It is linked to stress at work that usually negative outcomes for the
organisation. Our ability in consistently and predictably design an organisation that
motivates its members to adequate levels of performance still seems to be poor though
significant developments have been made over the past years. The re has be
proliferation of techniques intended to improve employee motivation. These include
quality circles, job enrichment, employee of the month entertainment awards, selfmanaging teams, and performance related pay, and incentives, corporate programmes
and suggestion schemes etc.
But how effective are these in motivating workers?
There are three ways in which the terms motive and motivation have been used. These
are:
1. They have been used to refer to goals that people have or the outcomes they
want to reach, for example, achievement, status, power, friends and money.
These will influence the behaviour of people making them direct their
behaviour in certain ways in order to achieve these goals.
2. The cognitive processes or the decision-making processes that lead people to
pursue particular outcomes or goals in the first place. We have or we develop
desires for, say, achievement and friendship and we develop expectations
about the links between our actions and these outcomes. The cognitive
processes involve the individual taking decisions or making choices about
what to aim for and how to go about doing it.
3. The social processes through which some individuals try to change the
behaviour of others. Managers are usually trying to find ways to get workers
to work harder or to be more cooperative or to act with more initiative and
creativity.
KEY QUESTIONS RELATING TO MOTIVATION
1. What initiates behaviour?
2. What guides or directs behaviour?
3. What sustains behaviour?
INITIATING AND STIMULATING BEHAVIOUR
It is argued that in order for any behaviour to be initiated, that behaviour must be
triggered by some driving force, for example thirst is a driving force that causes
individuals to seek water. In the workplace a need for achievement may be the driving
force that motivates people to attempt to achieve challenging work related goals.
GUIDING BEHAVIOUR
Though behaviour is initiated by some driving force, it is guided or directed by the
decisions that an individual makes as to which alternatives are available. Events in the
environment may cause individuals to make new decisions or change a course of
action that they are pursuing. For example, a change in individual perception about
the appropriateness of certain activities in the achievement of a goal.
SUSTAINING BEHAVIOUR
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How long will someone persist in attempting to achieve a particular goal? The
stringer the motivated behaviour, the more likely someone is to persist in the
achievement of the relevant goals.
WHY DO PEOPLE WORK?
Psychologists argue that for humans work is as natural as rest or play. Anthropologists
have also found that all societies including the most primitive, engage in work based,
organised activities of some kind though these differ from one culture to another.
Studies by peter Warr (1984) revealed some psychological effects of unemployment
that help to show why some people are motivated to work. These include;
a) Financial anxiety- worries about money are a strong predictor of overall
anxiety levels in unemployment situations.
b) Loss of traction/ life structure- employment seems to create a structure and
direction that may not be easily attained in situations of unemployment.
Traction refers to the structure in people’s lives that can help to provide people
with a sense of progress and achievement, for example people at work look
forward to their weekend and their holidays while the unemployed report a
feeling that everyday is the same and that there is nothing in particular to look
forward to.
c) Less decision making- when people are unemployed, they are not answerable
to an employer and are not subject to rules and regulations that they may find
stressful or unacceptable. However, while there may be more freedom in
theory, generally people find that there is less to be free about. Decisions tend
to be seen as less important and less significant, which may have an effect on
overall levels of self-esteem and confidence.
d) Less skill development- training and development opportunities are available
when people are at work.
e) Loss of status- the attitudes towards unemployment in our societies can make
people feel less important and as less valuable members of society. Even the
words/ adjectives describing unemployment have negative connotations, for
example, redundant (literally meaning something which no longer has any
use), is used to describe people who have lost their jobs. From the above
points it can be argued that people work in order to:
1) Protect themselves from financial anxiety
2) Gain a structure in their lives
3) Have an arena in which they exercise control and make decisions
4) Enhance status.
CLASSICAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Include theories by Taylor on SM, Adam Smith (people motivated by self interest).
RECENT MOTIVATION THEORIES
1) McGregor 2)Maslow 3) Vroom 4)Alderfer 5)Herzberg 6)McClelland
7)Blau and Etzioni 9)Stacy Adams
NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
They focus on the question what initiates or stimulates behaviour? Focus is on
different kinds of needs that people experience and identify those that are regarded as
important t any particular time. There is an implicit assumption that needs are the
most important determinants of individual levels of motivation
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY)
Maslow was influenced by John Dewey and William James (behaviourists). The
theory states that only ungratified needs motivate behaviour.
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According to Abraham Maslow, needs at the lower level of the hierarchy dominate an
individual motivational drive as long as they continue to be unsatisfied. Once they are
satisfied the individually moves further into a higher need category by motivated by
difficult set of needs. Maslow identified total a total of 5 needs categories (some argue
that they are 7 including intellectual and as aesthetic needs).
Physiological needs -basic needs of food, sees, physiogical tension release air; water.
Safety/ security comfort – needs for security, comfort, tranquillity and freedom from
fear.
Belongingness/social needs- need to belong, to love and to be loved.
Esteem needs- need for confidence- to be in harmony with yourself.
Intellectual needs- studying and writing books, academic achievement
Aesthetic needs- having an appreciation of beauty, harmony, arts, architecture.
Self-actualisation= need to realise one’s full potential. It is argued that the destiny of
people is in their hands, therapists only help people to grow, that is, becoming. The
need to achieve long term goals in life and to become everything one is capable of
becoming. For Maslow there are few examples of self-actualising people (Eistein,
Beethoven). Most of us have peak experiences, which give us momentary glimpses of
the self-actualiser’s world. According to Maslow people in low paid employment or
who face hazardous / dangerous environments in the workplace will be less interested
in developing social networks, achieving high status in their jobs/ realising their
potential in other ways.
CRITIQUE OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
1. The problem with the progression is that it leaves no room to move down the
hierarchy that could occur, for example, if a person loses their job.
2. The hierarchy is not always followed, for example one could eat
(physiological), then go to study (intellectual) and other stages may come in
after. Therefore there is no linear progression. One can stay up late and study
at night (bypass the need to sleep) in order to fulfil a higher order need for
intellectual capability.
3. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is premised on the view that people should
deprived of certain needs in order to sustain motivated behaviour. Though
need deprivation may motivate behaviour for a certain length of time, it may
also yield opposite results. For example if people are continually denied an
opportunity to satisfy their needs this may lead to demotivated, apathetic and
disheartened behaviour.
McGREGOR’S THEORY X AND Y
Theory X= workers naturally resist work; they are self centred, resistant to change,
lacing in ambition and the desire to be responsible. They have to be force to work in
order to meet organisational goals. Theory x assumptions are appropriate for
employees motivated by lower order needs.
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Theory Y= opposite of X. Work is natural like rest or play. Humans are wiling to
control and direct themselves provided they are committed to the objectives of the
organisation. They seek responsibility and are creative. Theory Y is appropriate for
employees motivated by higher order needs- leads to participatory management and
good work relations.
CLAYTON ALDERFER AND THE ERG THEORY (1972)
He grouped human needs into 3 basic categories that are:
Existence needs= includes Mslow’s need 1&2
Relatedness= Maslow’s need 3&4
Growth= Maslow’s need 5
He was responding to the problematic “fulfilment progression” dimension proposed
by Maslow. Alderfer suggests that motivated behaviour can be activated either via the
need fulfilment progression o by another dynamic referred to as the need frustration
regression. The regression theory explains human behaviour when frustrated in trying
to meet needs at the next level. The regression theory argues that people regress to the
next lower category of needs and intensify their effort to gratify these needs.
DAVID McCLELLAND’S NEED THEORY (1961)
Proposed at almost the same time as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. He identified three
socially defined needs by people that are directly linked to their work preferences.
These are: 1) the need for achievement 2) need for power 3) need for affiliation
. These need categories are learned through life experiences. The person is motivated
by any of the 3 identified needs.
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT
Deals with issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals and pursuing and
overcoming difficulties. A person with a high need for achievement seeks excellence
in performance, enjoys difficult and challenging goals. High achievers often hope and
plan for success and often want to work alone.
NEED FOR POWER
People with a high need for power like to control people and events. According to
McClelland’s research, the best mangers are those with socialised power (power used
for social benefit many). Bad managers are those with personalised power (used for
personal gain). Managers with socialised power have an interest in organisational
goals and have a desire to be useful to society.
NEED FOR AFFILIATION
Refers to the need to express emotions and feelings to others while expecting them to
do the same in return. People motivated by the need for affiliation maintain warm,
close, intimate relationships. Such people find conflict and complications in their
relationships very disturbing. The needs identified by McClelland can help managers
recognise the diversity of behaviours that people display at work. Recognising
individual differences is an important starting point in the attempt to understand
motivation.
HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
He looks at satisfiers and dissatisfiers for people at wok. He studied 200 engineers in
Pennsylvania in the 1950s. He believed people had 2 sets of needs (a) avoidance o
pain /animistic (b) desire fore psychological growth.
Work conditions related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth were
labelled motivators (satisfiers) while those conditions that were related to
dissatisfaction caused discomfort or pain were labelled hygiene factors. Motivation
factors lead to job satisfaction while hygiene factors lead to job dissatisfaction.
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Motivators/satisfiers= include responsibility, achievement, recognition, nature of
work, advancement. Job satisfaction comes through job enrichment. This leads to
good mental health and excellent performance.
Hygiene factors/dissatisfiers= job dissatisfaction comes when hygiene factors are
either not present or not good enough. These factors relate to the context of the job
and do not directly affect a person’s motivation to work but influence a person’s level
of discontent. For example salary, job security, working conditions, interpersonal
relationships, and company policy/ administration. * Salary is both a satisfier and
dissatisfier.
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
People are not only motivated by needs. They go through a decision making process
that explores the validity of goals that they are pursuing examining the extent to
which they are likely to achieve objectives by pursuing a particular course of action;
compares their situation with those of others; investigates the differences between
what they get out or in some way considers the benefits associated with devoting
energy to a particular set of activities at work.
VROOM’s EXPECTANCY THEORY (1964)
Based on three key notions that people bring to work.
1. Valence= value/importance that one places on a particular reward.
2. Expectancy= the belief that effort leads to performance. E-P. (For example if I
try harder, I can do better).
3. Instrumentality= belief that performance is related to rewards. For example if I
perform better, I will get more pay. P-R.
 It is the person’s belief about the relationships between effort,
performance and reward that is important rather than the actual nature
of the relationship. A person’s motivation increases if he believes that
effort leads to performance and that performance leads to rewards,
assuming the person wants rewards. However, a motivational problem
arises when there is a disbelief in a relationship between performance
and rewards and lack of desire for the rewards offered. The solution is
to alter these beliefs. For example an insurance broker who does not
believe greater sales will to overall high commission (rewards), might
be shown computationally or graphically that a direct relationship does
exist.
Criticism
Individuals are not always self-centred and calculative. Sometimes individuals are not
calculative. (See our African economy of affection).
STACY ADAMS THEORY OF INEQUITY (1963)
He argues that people are motivated when they find themselves in situations of
inequity (unfairness). The need to be fairly is so overwhelming that people engage in
several strategies reduce situations of inequity. People consider their inputs into the
organisation and their outputs (the organisation’s contribution to the relationship).
STRATEGIES UISED BY PEOPLE TO REDUCE INEQUITY
1. Changing the person’s outcomes- if people feel that their outcomes are less
than other people in the same situation they may try to increase their outcomes
by appealing to their bosses, supervisors/trade unions. They may bring their
inequity to public attention in order to restore a level of equity.
2. Alter the person’s inputs – individual may lower his/her input by putting in
less effort or time if they feel they are being treated worse off than others.
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However, if they feel they are being treated better than others they may
increase inputs by working harder.
Changing other’s outcomes- efforts to make other’s outcomes be the same
with yours.
Changing other’s inputs- (the comparison other’s input)- you want their input
to be the same as yours (or more than yours if they earn more).
To use a different person as a comparison other- where perceptions can be
changed one may restore feelings of inequity by ceasing to consider certain
individuals as comparable to them. For example someone may be picked for
special treatment (e.g. the boss’s son or girlfriend)- the idea is that you stop
comparing yourself with them and start realising the special circumstances
surrounding this individual.
Rationalising the inequity and changing the perceptions of own or other’s
input/ outcomes. If people’s perceptions are what influences their behaviour
strongly then a change in perceptions can reverse the inequity situation. People
may voluntarily re-evaluate the situation and become satisfied that they are not
being treated unfairly in comparison to others.
Leave the organisational situation- continued perception of unfairness justifies
someone to quit his or her job. Whilst leaving the job may be difficult these
days (SAPS) people may withdraw psychologically from their job if they
experience inequity for a long period of time. Look at Blau ‘s exchange
theory.
THE END
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