The Latitudinal Gradient Project
Report of an Antarctica New Zealand
Workshop
Christchurch, 15 –16 August 2000
Dr Dean Peterson
Antarctica New Zealand
International Antarctic Centre
Christchurch, New Zealand
Dr Clive Howard-Williams
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric
Research (Ltd.)
Christchurch, New Zealand
II
Produced by
Antarctica New Zealand
38 Orchard Road
Christchurch
NEW ZEALAND
Phone:
(03) 358 0200
Fax:
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This document should be cited as Peterson, D., and C. Howard-Williams
(eds.) 2000. The Latitudinal Gradient Project. Antarctica New Zealand,
special publication.
Additional copies of this document may be obtained from Antarctica New
Zealand.
Cover photograph:
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary ...............................................................................
Acknowledgements ................................................................................
Preface ...................................................................................................
1. Introduction .......................................................................................
2. General Research Strategies ...........................................................
3. Physical Environment .......................................................................
4. Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems ...........................................
5. Research Priorities and Directions for Terrestrial and
Freshwater Ecosystems ...................................................................
6. Marine Ecosystems ..........................................................................
7. Research Priorities and Directions for Marine Ecosystems ..............
8. Site Selection ....................................................................................
9. Environmental Impacts .....................................................................
10. Logistics
........................................................................................
11. References .......................................................................................
12. Workshop Participants .....................................................................
APPENDIX 1 Summary of the principles from the Environmental Protocol, and
levels of environmental impact assessment relevant to this proposal.
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to the Antarctica New Zealand staff for their support in making this
workshop successful and smooth. We also thank Antarctica New Zealand for
financing the workshop and venue. We would like to thank the Office of Polar
Programmes of the US National Science Foundation for funds for Professor
Berry Lyons to participate and to Professor Lyons for his presentation and
discussions.
The Group Chairpersons included, Dr Brian Storey, and the authors of this
document. Rapporteurs were Dr Brian Stewart, Brent Sinclair and Dr Wendy
Lawson. Finally we thank all the participants for their contributions and
enthusiasm for this workshop and the Latitudinal Gradients concept.
3
PREFACE
Background of events leading up to the Workshop
Early in 1999 discussions were held between Antarctica New Zealand and
Dr Paul Berkman (Byrd Polar Research Center, USA) on a possible project to
study the variation in coastal ecosystems in the Ross Sea. At the March 1999
Antarctic Science Workshop in Wellington, Clive Howard-Williams presented a
concept to link New Zealand terrestrial and freshwater research using the wide
latitudinal variation in climate that occurs along the Victoria Coast. As a result of
these preliminary discussions and presentations a recommendation was made
that New Zealand scientists take advantage of the “natural laboratory” in the
latitudinal gradient offered by the Ross Sea sector and use the extensive
combined logistics pool of the US, Italy and New Zealand to:

Combine our thinking to address the issue of biological responses to a
changing environment.

Use the naturally changing environment encompassed by the latitudinal
span from Cape Adare to the southern end of the Ross Ice Shelf to address
this issue.

Link biological and physical scientists to define the environmental
characteristics of this latitudinal gradient.

Jointly work on coastal marine ecosystems, inland aquatic ecosystems, and
terrestrial ecosystems.

Join colleagues in the US and Italian programmes who are currently
interested in this approach.

Provide agreement between ourselves on the method of pursuing these
goals.
Following the presentation at the March 1999 workshop, we circulated a
discussion document on the proposed Latitudinal Gradient Project (HowardWilliams and Peterson 1999). This discussion paper has been presented at a
number of international forums and formed the basis for the workshop reported
on in this document. Italy has held a science workshop entitled, “Victoria Land
Coastal Programme”, led by Dr R. Cattaneo-Vietti. Dr Paul Berkman has
introduced the combined US, New Zealand and Italian Latitudinal Gradient
concept to the 2000 meeting of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
(SCAR) at the Biology and Geology Working Groups of SCAR. Subsequently,
the National Science Foundation (NSF) has funded a proposal to hold two
international workshops in the US in 2001 on the Latitudinal Gradient concept.
4
To proceed with Antarctica New Zealand’s aims in furthering this concept a
two day workshop was held in Christchurch, entitled: The Latitudinal Gradient
Project: A Workshop. This report presents the findings of this workshop.
The workshop was organised by Dean Peterson and Clive Howard-Williams.
Structure of the Workshop
The purpose of the workshop was to discuss the state of scientific
knowledge of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems in Victoria Land
and form a strategy and direction for a proposed Latitudinal Gradient Project as
one focus for New Zealand’s Antarctic research programmes. Workshop
participants consisted of, scientists representing the many disciplines
encompassed by the project, logisticians and environmental specialists. The
workshop goals were to:

Provide background information on past studies and other existing
initiatives.

Reach consensus on the scientific concept of the project.

Define the working hypotheses for the first four years of the project.

Define logistical, operational and environmental parameters for successful
initiation of the project.

Develop an agreed science plan.
Plenary sessions were held each morning reporting on existing large-scale
ecosystem programmes. These included a presentation by Professor Berry
Lyons, Director of Byrd Polar Research Centre and Principal Scientist on the
McMurdo Dry Valleys Long Term Ecological Research project (LTER). Other
presentations included moss and lichen studies, soil research, inland water and
marine research and UV affects. In the afternoon sessions the attendees were
separated into three groups (terrestrial, marine and physical environment). Each
group addressed a set of workshop objectives (listed below) and reported their
findings back to the full audience at the end of each day for discussion.
Each of the three groups had a discussion leader and a rapporteur. The
discussion leaders and rapporteurs are identified in the list of workshop
participants at the end of this report. The following report is a synthesis of the
plenary papers and the group reports representing the combined input of the
Workshop participants.
5
WORKSHOP OBJECTIVES
Objective 1: Define the working hypotheses for the first four years of the project.

What physical characteristics are changing with latitude?

What changes in biodiversity and ecosystem processing are associated
with latitudinal variance?

How important is altitude to the variation of ecosystem and environment
and is it a surrogate for latitude?

How important is the legacy of the past to present environments and
ecosystems?
Objective 2: Prepare a synopsis of information needs relating to:

the environmental conditions recorded in the Northern and Southern
Victoria Land coasts,

the terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems likely to be
encountered and

current and potential international collaborative research projects.
Objective 3: Define logistical, operational and environmental parameters for
success.

What are the ideal sites?

What are the “year-round” measurements needed at each site?

What opportunities are there for remote sensing?

What are the logistical constraints of operating at these sites?

What are the environmental constraints associated with these sites?

How do we overcome the constraints (logistical and environmental) of
operating at these sites?
Objective 4: Develop a working science plan.

What management structure would be best for the project?

Define a set of operating rules for scientists involved in the project.
6
It is hoped that this report will provide a platform to stimulate discussions;
define new research directions; provide Antarctic funding directions; and
increase international research collaboration in Victoria Land.
As such the report is intended to serve as a planning tool for scientists,
logistics experts and administrators concerned with science funding and
science directions in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.
7
1. INTRODUCTION
The Ross Sea region contains a number of environmental (ecological)
spectra relating to cold, aridity, solar radiation, UV, light/dark conditions and
highly variable sea ice dynamics including a major polynya. The land and coast
within the Ross Dependency across this wide latitudinal range includes a variety
of marine, terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Some of these systems are
unique to the Antarctic. Within the Ross Sea region the Victoria Land mountains
and coast contains the most extensive coastal latitudinal gradient in Antarctica,
from 72°S (Cape Adare) to 86°S at the La Gorce Mountains at the southern end
of the Ross Ice Shelf (14º of latitude along a narrow longitudinal band).
Environmental changes over such a wide latitudinal range at one point in
time can be used to mimic environmental changes at one point in space over a
long time span. A latitudinal gradient can therefore be used to study the effects
of potential changes in regional climate that may or may not be associated with
global change, as well as providing a range of environmental conditions for
more fundamental studies. Underlying this is the phenomenon of “Polar
focussing” whereby a given change in latitude in the Polar Regions is followed
by a greater change in environmental variables than a similar latitudinal change
in the temperate or tropical regions. Polar focussing provides an additional
advantage to the use of a gradient approach to study environmental change in
the Ross Sea region.
The Ross Sea sector contains a number of climatic extremes. Snowfalls
vary from almost no precipitation in the Dry Valleys to relatively high snowfalls
on the northern part of the coast and at Ross Island. Temperature variation is
from relatively warm temperatures at coastal sites north of the McMurdo Ice
Shelf to cold temperatures at the southern inland sites and those adjacent to the
Ross Ice Shelf. There is also a great variation in altitude from low to high
altitudes along the Trans-Antarctic Mountain range, which stretches the length
of the Ross Dependency. Along the Ross Sea coast itself there are varying
degrees of ice cover including a large polynya which is a major feature of the
Ross Sea (Spezie and Manzella 1999).
South of McMurdo Sound the Ross Ice Shelf covers the sea and exerts a
much colder influence on the adjacent landmass than the sea from McMurdo
northwards.
Two major zones can thus be defined: north and south of the seaward edge
of the Ross Ice shelf. Within each of these, variations in climate and habitat for
living organisms are likely to be significant with a discontinuous shift in
physiological and ecological responses across the boundary of the Ross Ice
Shelf and perhaps other, as yet unknown, boundaries. For instance,
unpublished evidence from coastal marine bivalves indicates that significant
changes occur in the vicinity of Terra Nova Bay which may allow us to partition
the Victoria Land coastal environment at this point also (Berkman et al. 2000).
8
In summer, glacial meltwaters are common from the McMurdo Sound area
and northwards but are less frequent south of this area. We may therefore
expect that the types of terrestrial organisms, their abundance and their
adaptations to Antarctic conditions would be very different at Cape Hallett and
the Beardmore Glacier. For instance only a few species of algae and bacteria
have been recorded from frozen ponds at latitude 86ºS where freshwater
existed only under a cover of ice (Broady 1998, Cameron 1972). In contrast, at
Moubray Bay (Cape Hallett) extensive areas of moss flush fed by seeping
waters form a large “wetland” across the inner reaches of the Bay, and algae
are common in the meltstreams of the area (L. Logan and T. Chinn, pers.
comm.).
We may expect that ambient temperatures and the period of free water may
decrease from Northern Victoria Land to the southern latitude of Southern
Victoria Land. Seasonal variability in solar radiation is at its most extreme at
latitude 60-90ºS (Table 1). At say, Cape Adare, 72ºS, there may be two months
of the year when less than 1MJ m-² day of radiation reaches the atmosphere,
but at the Beardmore Glacier (85ºS) there are 6-7 months of the year with less
than 1 MJ m-² day. North-South gradients in enhanced UV radiation effects
resulting from spring ozone depletion may also be expected.
In these conditions it is likely that species composition will change and
species diversity may fall as latitude increases with a few remaining species
adapted to extreme southern conditions.
Table 1. (adapted from Vincent 1988). Radiation at the top of the atmosphere
as a function of latitude and time of year for the zone 60-90ºS. Data as 1MJ m-²
day-¹.
Latitude
60ºS
J
42
F
31
M
19
A
11
M
4
Month
J
J
2
3
A
8
S
18
O
27
N
38
D
44
Total
(MJ y-¹)
7417
70ºS
42
28
13
5
1
-a
-
3
13
22
37
45
6174
80ºS
44
26
6
-
-
-
-
-
6
18
38
47
5592
90ºS
44
26
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
18
39
48
5411
We believe a significant key issue that needs to be addressed is the
response (biochemical, molecular, genetic, physiological, organism, community
or ecosystem level) to a changing environment. This proposal is aimed at
increasing our understanding of coastal marine, freshwater and terrestrial
organisms and ecosystems, their controlling variables and sensitivity to
environmental change along a north-south continuum. To do this effectively will
require combined information from a range of disciplines such as marine,
terrestrial and freshwater ecology, climate research, soil science, glaciology and
oceanography.
9
There are clearly significant advantages to be gained in drawing together
New Zealand’s expertise in these areas and linking this with our international
science partners in the Ross Dependency. This workshop brought together the
thoughts and energies of New Zealand scientists while allowing them to
maintain a degree of individual research direction. It was based on the concept
that if work related to extreme environments could be placed within a single key
issue we can maximise the transfer of information and ideas, utilise large
environmental data-sets and utilise joint logistic facilities with our partners, the
USA and Italy.
10
2. GENERAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES
The workshop reached consensus on six general strategies for studying
terrestrial and marine ecosystems along the coastal zone of Victoria Land:
1. Establishment of a comprehensive collection of existing information
(database) regarding environmental variation, paleoclimate research and
ecosystem understanding.
2. Application of an inter-disciplinary approach to ecosystem research,
focusing on responses to variation in latitude.
3. Application of a transect (i.e. perpendicular to the coast), at the different
latitudinal locations along the coastal zone, in order to separate altitude and
depth dependence from latitudinal variation.
4. Application of remote sensing and long term monitoring to characterise the
physical environment at selected transects.
5. Interaction with the McMurdo Dry Valleys Long Term Ecological Research
programme for annual baseline comparisons and historical environmental
information.
6. Close international collaboration with any US and Italian initiatives on
latitudinal variation and with the SCAR Programmes “Regional Sensitivity to
Climate Change” (RiSCC) and “Evolution in Antarctica” (EVOLANTA).
1. Database Establishment
The first step in creating an effective project to increase New Zealand’s
understanding and predictive knowledge of coastal zone ecosystems along
Victoria Land is the collation of existing data in a database or meta-data format.
The information in the database should cover previous studies along the coastal
zone from 72-86S. Bibliographic information as well as meta-data is important.
The international state of the knowledge of the coastal zone is the goal for this
step. This will be done collaboratively (see Strategy 6 above) if other national
programmes become established.
Existing science papers and science reports will be important sources of
information and the annual “Event Science and Logistic Reports” held by
Antarctica New Zealand need to be scanned. Maps and air photos from
previous studies over the entire coastal zone of Victoria Land may need to be
scanned into digital format.
11
The second step is integration of the collected information to assess
ecosystem response to environmental gradients and transition zones from large
scale effects (sea-ice coverage, Ross Ice Shelf locale) and regional effects
(micro-climates, hydrology). This information will lead to the identification of
gaps in our current understanding and potential indicators of change for
predicting local human impacts and regional and global environmental changes.
The final step of the preliminary investigation is to choose locations for the
project, which have historical data that can be used as a longer-term record of
the ecosystem. It was acknowledged at the meeting that an important factor for
site selection is the availability and extent of existing data.
2. Inter-Disciplinary Approach
The scale and complexity of the systems being addressed requires an
interdisciplinary approach to this project. A knowledge of the physical
environment and the dependence of physical factors on latitude, altitude, depth
and distance from the coast are primary objectives for the project. These will
provide the platform for an understanding of ecosystems in terms of
biodiversity, interactions between species, productivity and energy exchange.
The imminent publication of the Ross Sea State of the Environment Report will
be an important first step.
The physical measurements needed are air, soil, soil moisture, freshwater
and ocean temperature; current and wind vectors and magnitudes; lake- and
sea-ice conditions; stream and ice flows; tide and lake levels; topography and
bathymetry; solar radiation; and associated environmental chronologies. There
are a number of existing New Zealand programmes that could contribute to the
project. Examples in the area of physical sciences include: glacial studies of ice
dynamics; climate monitoring including all micro-climates; geological research;
Antarctic soil research; and hydrographic studies.
The area of Biological research includes terrestrial biodiversity studies;
penguin research; UVB effects; Antarctic aquatic ecosystem research; fish
biology; marine ecosystem studies; and seal research. Integration of the
research topics mentioned would greatly contribute to understanding the coastal
ecosystems and their dependence to latitude. The latitudinal variation would
begin to give us a predictive knowledge of future impacts to the environment.
12
3.
Transect Approach for Site Sampling
Because of the importance of altitude on land and depth in the sea on the
physical conditions surrounding any site chosen, a sampling approach of
multiple measurements and expanding along a transect perpendicular to the
coast was recommended. This will help de-couple the three gradients referred
to in the physical environment section. A transect approach reduces the impact
of microclimate effects on the ecosystems studied, as was clearly shown in
Fountain et al. (1999).
4.
Remote Sensing and Long Term Measurements
Workshop participants acknowledged that remote sensing data would be
valuable for continuing studies and information on large spatial scales. There
are a number of satellite-based instruments, which give a number of physical
conditions for the Ross Sea Region. The information must however be
calibrated with field data at each site of interest.
Along with the remote sensing data, site based instrumentation is important
for long-term monitoring of key physical factors. The instruments mentioned at
the workshop were automatic weather stations, lake-level and stream monitors
and tide gauges using logging and/or telemetry to base stations.
5.
The McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER Site
The McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER site provides an excellent data set of
current measurements taken at the mid-point of Victoria Land. The site provides
excellent overlap thus compensating for year to year variations that may take
place at each latitudinal site. The meteorological observations for each site
studied in the Latitudinal Gradients Project should be calibrated against the
LTER measurement suite. Another asset of the LTER site is the length of the
past record.
The research done at the McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER site is based on a
Lake Basin approach (Wharton 1991; Priscu 1998; Fountain et al 1999) and
covers meteorological measurements and major landscape units, such as,
lakes, streams soils and glaciers. There is also a large modelling and synthesis
division devoted to the programme. The assets mentioned above combine to
make the McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER site an important asset and partner to the
LGP.
13
6.
International
Linking the database format in a comparable way with the US and Italian
programmes will be essential if these go ahead.
It was evident that significant progress will require close liaison with the US
Antarctic Programme if a proposal for research on “Marine Terrestrial
Interaction Across a High Latitudinal Environmental Gradient” (Berkman et al.
2000) proceeds. In addition, it is likely that both scientific and logistic
interactions with the Italian Antarctic Programme will increase markedly,
particularly if New Zealand proposals (see Sections 8 and 10 of this document)
for a temporary research site near Terra Nova Bay proceed. Italian researchers
have signalled a commitment to a “Victoria Land Coastal Transect project”
(Cattaneo-Vietti et al. 2000) by arranging a meeting in Siena, Italy in June 2000
and a presentation at the SCAR-EASIZ meeting in Bremerhaven, Germany in
June 1999.
The Biology - Working Group of SCAR has produced a Draft Science Plan for
its programme Regional Sensitivity to Climate Change in Antarctic Terrestrial
Ecosystems (RiSCC) which will have close affiliations with any Victoria Land
research using a latitudinal gradient approach.
14
3. The Physical Environment
Hypothesis: Broad scale environmental attributes and processes that vary with
latitude influence the structure and function of terrestrial and marine
ecosystems in Victoria Land.
Significant differences in the non-marine physical environment measurable
along latitudes 72-86S are found in temperature, solar radiation, humidity,
glacier movement and the biogeochemistry of melt waters. In the marine
environment differences occur with the dominating influences of light, ocean
currents, tides, sea ice and ice shelf coverage, depth and the sea floor
substrate. For example, air temperature variations with latitude are shown in
Figure 1 with data from three Automated Weather Station (AWS) data sets for
the 1997/98 year. Figure 2 shows the AWS sites and the variation in sea
conditions along the Victoria Land coast during January.
Average Weekly Temperatures (C)
5
Temperature
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
17/03/98
3/03/98
17/02/98
3/02/98
20/01/98
6/01/98
23/12/97
9/12/97
25/11/97
11/11/97
28/10/97
14/10/97
30/09/97
-30
Date
71.89,171.21
74.95,163.69
79.95,165.13
Figure 1: The average weekly temperature for three different sites along the
Victoria Land coast are shown for the timeframe of 30 September 1997 to 20
March 1998. An important feature is the extended period of time above freezing
at the lowest latitude site. Note there are freeze/thaw cycles, which are
averaged out by this method.
15
85S
AWS #3Land Coastal area showing the AWS sites used for
Figure 2: Map of Victoria
weekly average temperature comparisons. Important features are the Drygalski
Ice Tongue – south of AWS #2, the Ross Ice Shelf and the polynya area off the
Northern Victoria Land coast between AWS #1 and #2. Dotted line areas show
approximate positions for three polynyas in the Ross Sea.
Ross Ice Shelf
80S
Victoria
Land
Scott Base
16
Three major systematic environmental gradients that are significant to
understanding Victoria Land environments are latitude, altitude/depth and
distance from the coastline. These three gradients have different spatial scales,
environmental variables and environmental constants. None of these gradients
alone are simple surrogates for environmental change. However, combining
these will result in a better understanding of our current ecosystems and an
increased predictive knowledge of the effects of future environmental change.
At the latitude spanned by the Victoria Land coast (72-86 S) the variance
of physical factors for the three gradients can be summarised by Table 2 which
suggests a stronger dependence of physical factors on latitude than on altitude
and coastal effects, but it is clear that the three gradients need to be considered
together.
Table 2. Dependence of physical factors on three geographic independent
gradients, latitude, altitude and distance from the coast. The subjective values
present in this Table were reached by a consensus of the workshop
participants.
Latitude
(per degree)
2
Altitude/ Depth
(per 100 m)
1
Distance to
Coast (per km)
None
Temperature
2
2
2–1
Humidity
2
1
2
Wind
1
1
1
Precipitation (amount)
2
1
1
Precipitation (type)
2
1
1
Ablation (amount)
2
2
2
Ablation (type)
2
2
2
Terrestrial geochemistry
1
1
1
Seasonality
2
1
None
Polynya
2
None
1
Current
2
2
2
Salinity
1
2
2
Tidal cycles
3
None
None
Sea Ice cover
2
None
1
Ice shelf cover
3
None
None
Terrestrial Physical Factor
Solar radiation
Marine Physical Factor
Key:
1 – Weak dependence,
2 – Medium dependence,
3 – Strong dependence.
17
At a local scale the following factors are of importance in the terrestrial
system:

Rock type

Aspect and relief

Depth of the active layer

Soil age

Surface albedo
There are latitudinal changes in physical and chemical properties of
terrestrial and freshwater environments, which impact in a very significant way
on the availability and chemistry of free water (gas and liquid). The marine
physical environment is dominated by synoptic scale changes along the
latitude, i.e., polynyas, sea-ice cover and the Ross Ice Shelf, although these are
not necessarily caused by latitude per se.
18
4. TERRESTRIAL AND FRESHWATER
ECOSYSTEMS
There is a distinct latitudinal zonation along the Victoria Land coastal area in
ecosystem dynamics of terrestrial and freshwater communities. These biological
changes are mostly driven by the availability of liquid water and understanding
of the dynamics of free water is imperative to defining local and latitudinal
effects. Physio-chemical processes and biological communities in terrestrial and
freshwater systems respond in a series of steps (zones) rather than a simple
cline. These steps may be related to the presence or absence of the Ross Ice
Shelf; the extent of sea ice; persistent or katabatic windflows; or glaciers.
In terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems the gradient of latitude from
towards 72-86S can be seen in terms of an array of contrasting characteristics,
some of which decrease, some increase and some are markedly “non linear”.
Several important processes decrease with increasing latitude in Victoria
Land as environmental stress increases. These are shown in Figure 4A and
include:

Solar radiation, diurnal energy input and length of the annual light period
diurnal energy input;

Temperature and length of the annual thaw period;

Depth of the permafrost and hence soil moisture. (This impacts on , solute
chemistry and nutrients);

Rate of biogeochemical cycling;

Bio-complexity;

Bio-diversity.
Several processes in contrast, increase with latitude, also shown in Figure
4A and include:

Generation times (impact on genetic diversity);

Discontinuity (patchiness) of communities (impact on genetic diversity);

Recovery time following perturbations;

Endemicity.

System simplicity
19
A
Solar radiation and length of the annual light period
Temperature and length of the annual thaw period
Depth of the permafrost
Rates of biogeochemical cycling
Bio-complexity
Bio-diversity
V
A
L
U
E
Generation times
Recovery times following perturbations
Patchiness
Endemicity
System simplification
LATITUDE
72 S
Oceanic
Influence
86 S
B
Resilience to
environmental
change
V
A
L
U
E
Number of
Freeze / Thaw
Cycles
72 S
LATITUDE
86 S
Figure 4. Ecosystem processes that depend on latitude in the terrestrial
environment. A. Process that decrease/increase in a general sense with
latitude. B. Processes that vary in a markedly “non-linear” manner with latitude.
20
There are four terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem processes which
respond in a non-linear manner to latitude along the Victoria Land coastal zone.
These are shown schematically in Figure 4B and are:

Resistance to change
It was considered that community resistance to environmental change will
initially decrease as biological systems simplify and then above a certain
latitude may increase again as only highly resistant organisms remain.

Number of freeze/thaw cycles
Freeze/ thaw cycles impart considerable stresses on organisms and also
dictate ecosystem features such as nutrient and solute concentrations. It was
considered that the number of freeze thaw cycles will reach their maximum in
the middle of the Victoria Land gradient where summer temperatures are closer
to zero than at 72S or 86S.

Oceanic Influence
Oceanic influences on the terrestrial environment along the Victoria Land
coast may result from three distinct zones. The first is in Northern Victoria Land
adjacent to this polynya. (Note the polynya itself may result from Katabataic
winds from the mountains to Ross Sea.) The second area of influence is
towards the south of the McMurdo Sound where fast ice is more prevalent and
can exist for many years. Finally, there is a very abrupt decrease in oceanic
influences south of the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf.

Effect of altitude.
Altitude has a very important influence on the terrestrial and freshwater
ecosystems. This project will show a quantifiable relationship between altitude
and latitude. This is because although daylength is unaffected, altitude has a
marked bearing on temperature and effects of decreasing temperature with
latitude in the absence of solar radiation effects can be mimicked by increasing
altitude. Similarly, the lower the latitude the higher the altitude required to reach
a defined minimum temperature, or a defined thaw period. Marked dependence
of temperature, ablation and the glacial equilibrium line on altitude and distance
from the coast were shown for the Taylor Valley by Fountain et al. (1999). For
this reason, a latitudinal gradient in freshwater and terrestrial systems should be
considered in the context of a series of transects from the coast into the
mountains at different latitudes.
21
5. RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND
DIRECTIONS FOR TERRESTRIAL AND
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
1. Identify biota and establish community structures
The Antarctic terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems consist of food-webs
with a limited number of trophic levels (Freckman and Virginia 1998, James et
al. 1998) although complexity in microbial food webs maybe equivalent to that in
some non-polar systems (Vincent and James 1999). In fact, the Antarctic is an
environment dominated by microbes in the absence or near absence of higher
plants. The use of molecular tools and appropriate culturing methods creates
the opportunity to investigate microbial diversity of the Antarctic to determine
whether or not Antarctic soils are low in diversity. Population dynamics and
distributions have yet to be established for many organisms including mosses,
lichens and especially the microbial taxa.
Both traditional and molecular genetic techniques should be employed for
the taxonomy of species in terrestrial and freshwater systems. Molecular
genetic analyses have been used to study evolutionary processes of certain
species (Skotnicki et al. 1997). Measurements of genetic variation are
important in understanding species ability to react to changing environmental
conditions and can be used to track past environmental changes.
Community structure has been shown to be dependent on latitude and local
effects. The marked diversity in community composition between the lakes in
the Taylor Valley (e.g., Priscu (Ed.) 1998) illustrates the importance of local
effects. Microbial flora and fauna (cyanobacteria, tardigrades, nematodes,
rotifers) have several strategies (e.g. anhydrobisis) that allow them to be
dispersed by wind and to establish in some of the most extreme environments
on earth. However, local soil conditions (e.g., salinity, lack of carbon) or water
conditions (salinity, anoxia) can result in local patchiness in community structure
and composition.
In some aquatic communities seasonal and interannual variation may
complicate a latitudinal gradient in community structure, but this variability itself
may be a feature of latitude. This is unknown. It was recognised that general
principles of changing communities with latitude may be better known for the
Arctic and that Arctic systems would be useful indicators of research direction
for community studies in the Antarctic.
22
2. Determine the response of terrestrial and freshwater biota to the
physical environment
It has been shown for Dry Valley soils that the wide geographic distribution
of a single dominant nematode Scottnena lindsayae indicates that dispersal is
not the main limiting factor in presence and diversity of soil organisms
(Freckman and Virginia 1998). Rather it is interactions of the soil physical and
23
chemical environments. Dispersal barriers between lakes, however is certainly
the reason why some organisms (e.g. crustacean zooplankton) have not spread
from the Vestfold Hills to Southern Victoria Land. The effects of single physical
and chemical factors on the biological processes of soil endolithic, lake and melt
pool communities in Victoria Land are not well understood. Quantitative data on
the physical and chemical characteristics of the soils; the salinity of the lakes
and ponds; moisture availability in the area; and temperature regime in the
microenvironment where biotic activity takes place are needed to solve this
problem. Along with the physical characteristics of the environment, there are
questions on the importance of dispersal or environmental barriers to the
development of more diverse Antarctic communities (Wharton 1991, WynnWilliams et al. 1997).
The macroscopic Victoria Land terrestrial ecosystem consists mostly of low
biodiversity and simple soil food webs. This type of ecosystem normally has low
resilience to any change, including those in the physical and chemical
environments and particularly to human induced change. Trophic levels may be
only one species deep therefore extinction can result in large changes in
community structure (Freckman and Virginia 1998). However, in polar regions
the system dominants are most likely to be the most resistant to change.
Scientific research on the lakes and streams in the Dry Valleys has been
underway for many years (e.g., Vincent 1988, Priscu 1998). However, research
on these ecosystems to the north and south of the Dry Valleys is limited. The
existence of ice covered lakes in the Victoria Land area are dependent on two
climatic conditions. The first condition is that the mean summer temperatures
must be low enough so that the ice cover does not completely melt. The second
condition is that the lake is supplied each summer by melt water from glaciers
so the lake does not ablate way. The balance of these two factors (Chinn 1993)
determines the water level of the lake. The lake environment responds to
environmental changes on a time scale of 10 to 1000 years (Green et. al. 1988;
Wharton et. al. 1989, Webster et al. 1999) dependent on changes in local and
regional climate. Thus the further south, the thicker the ice cover, the more
likely ablation exceeds melt generation, the shorter the thaw period for ponds
and glacier streams and the less likely aquatic communities are to exist at all.
Within this context local environmental conditions are important. For
instance the high number of melt streams and large melt volumes in the Brown
Hills and Darwin Glacier area at 80°S (e.g. Vincent and Howard-Williams 1994,
Webster et al. 1998, Timperley 1997) may be a consequence of a local climate
anomaly (oasis?). Such anomalies are themselves important as they allow the
study of other factors such as geochemical processes at high latitudes
(Campbell and Claridge 2000).
An appreciation of inter-annual variability across the latitudinal gradient is
critical to any analysis of the impacts of a changing environment. In the 1970s
flows in the Onyx river varied from almost zero 1976 to >13 m3s-1 in 1977 (Chin
1993). It has been acknowledged that in Arctic terrestrial ecosystems current
interannual variability in summer temperature might override predicted changes
over the next century (Callahan et al. 1999). The marked interannual variability
24
in the mixed layers of the Dry Valley lakes suggests that variability is driven by
small variations in local climate and hydrology (Welch et al. 2000). Thus the
linkage between climate change and biological variation at both local and
regional scales is the key to understanding the lake ecosystems
3.
Characterise the evolution of key organisms and determine their
responses to environmental change using latitude and altitude
change as a surrogate.
There is a limited range of plants and organisms inhabiting the Victoria Land
coastal soils, melt pools and lakes. The biota that does exist has adapted to
short growing seasons, low temperatures and extended freeze periods.
Because each trophic level may only be one species deep, there is little
interspecific competition but it may be that intra-specific competition is greatly
increased in extreme environments. Therefore, adaptations at the individual and
community level are focused around survival in extreme environmental
conditions. Genetic analysis on moss populations in Victoria Land has shown
variation within single clumps of mosses, a possible expression of the extreme
environment (Skotnicki et al. 1997). The adaptations of organisms in terms of
their physiological, biochemical and behavioural characteristics can be studied
on a latitude and altitude range as surrogates to environmental change. This
may allow the development of predictive models to determine the extent of the
ecological change for a given change in the physical or chemical environment.
Such models may be used in climate change scenarios or for assessments of
human impacts.
In freshwater ecosystems the transport of species is less understood. Many
of the lake systems are ice-covered all year. These systems have benthic
communities with diverse microbial and viral components and, as discussed
above, there are major differences in communities between lakes in Victoria
Land and in the Vestfold Hills which are not well understood. In contrast the
open water systems such as melt pools and open ponds have evolutionary
aspects similar to the soil communities.
The SCAR programme “Evolution in Antarctica” (EVOLANTA) will
examine genetic variation in terrestrial and limnetic organisms, and any New
Zealand studies in this research area should ensure close links with
EVOLANTA.
25
6. MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
There is latitudinal zonation along the Ross Sea coast in the marine
physical environment (Spezie et al. 1999, Faranda et al. 1999). Biological
changes in marine environments depend on light, sea ice coverage, water
currents, depth, tidal cycles, and disturbance regimes. The first four variables
change with latitude.
Di Tullio and Smith (1996) discussed spatial variability in several physical,
chemical and biological aspects of the Ross Sea. A recent example from
Saggiomo et al. (1999) shows a latitudinal transect from the pack-ice at 72°S
across the polynya to 77°S. Over this gradient there was a seven-fold increase
in primary production from <0.3 mg C m3hr-1 at 72-73°S to>2.1 mg C m3hr-1 at
75°S.
In the benthos, a clear phytogeographical gradient from north to south along
the coastline of the Ross Sea was discussed by Cattaneo-Vietti et al. (1999),
together with descriptions of the zoobenthos in relation to depth. The gradient
was attributed to a southward shortening of the photoperiod and longer
persistence of the pack ice. Light-levels under sea ice are limited but still
important for shallow photosynthetic processes. Sea ice coverage is highly
seasonally variable but in general terms increases with latitude. This is made
more complex in the Ross Sea by the Ross Sea Polynya at 70-72°S. At
approximately 78 South there is a change to the permanent Ross Ice Shelf.
Several sets of authors have divided the Ross Sea (excluding the Ross Ice
Shelf) in three sub-systems based on euphotic depth, chlorophyll a, nutrients,
primary production and carbon dynamics (El Sayed et al. 1993, Saggiomo et al.
1999, Nelson et al. 1996). While definitions vary slightly these are essentially:
the consolidated ice pack, the loose ice pack and open waters.
The workshop participants identified four different physical environments in
the Ross Sea region marine system:
1
The open water environment characterised by the polynya areas. These
areas are mostly transient in the Ross Sea, but some polynyas can
persist for most of the year;
2
The loose-packed sea ice covered area which is highly seasonal in
nature;
3
Fast ice largely at the southern areas where the sea ice can persist for
more than a year;
4
The Ice Shelves, the McMurdo Ice Shelf and the Ross Ice Shelf. The
marine environment under the ice shelves is in darkness and may be
similar to conditions found in deep trench environments in the ocean.
26
The Drygalski Ice Tongue is a major feature along the Victoria Land coast
and has been suggested as a dividing point between the North and the South
Victoria Land coastal regions. Several marine features, both physical and
biological change at the Drygalski Ice Tongue (see, e.g. Berkman 1997a and
Beckmann et al. 2000).
In polar marine ecosystems the following points are important:

Temperature is relatively constant in the marine system (-1.8 C)

Salinity is less variable than land based aquatic ecosystems

Mobility of species in water movements complicates variations between sites

Mixing is a major factor in the marine system

Oceanographic changes are slower in the marine system than in terrestrial
systems
Along with the points raised above, there are other complicating factors is
the consideration of gradients in the marine system. For instance a switch from
two tides per day to one tide per day occurs somewhere between Cape Hallett
and McMurdo Sound (NIWA and Antarctica New Zealand Unpublished Data).
There is also high variation in benthic community structure and function within
latitude due to longitudinal variation in oceanography (Dayton & Oliver, 1977).
Hydrodynamics help to separate local effects from broader scale latitudinal
effects, but there are pronounced local effects that researchers have yet to fully
understand. Marine population dynamics and food webs tend to be flux driven
rather than a continuum of births and deaths over local spatial scales. It is
therefore imperative in the marine system to understand the physical
environment and the recent work of Italian researchers (Spezie et al. 1999,
Faranda et al. 1999) provides a valuable platform for this.
The Ross Sea is an important region for the production of Antarctic bottom
water. However, there is little known about the offshore flow of the bottom water
and the onshore flow of warm deep water in the Ross Sea. There is also limited
information about the hydrography and bathymetry of the area although detailed
coastal hydrographic charting commenced along the Victoria Land Coast in
January 2001. Without this basic information, predictive knowledge on the
impacts of environmental change is impossible.
Antarctic krill have the largest biomass of any animal on Earth. Their dominance
in the Southern Ocean is obvious, but not well understood. These animals
dominate the productive regions of the seasonal ice-pack zone, where they
occur in the highest concentrations in the vicinity of the shelf/slope break in the
vicinity of fronts and eddies.
The region is inhabited by a large number of different species, many of
which are not scientifically described. Species previously only found in the deep
ocean have been detected living under the ice shelf. Biodiversity of the Ross
27
Sea region is a fundamental part of the background marine research needed
to conduct any gradient project of this nature.
Leopard Seals and Orcas dominate the highest levels of the food-web in the
Ross Sea. The Weddell seal, Emperor penguin, Adelie penguin and Skua have
a small impact on the terrestrial system from nesting and birthing on shore.
Their largest impact occurs in the marine system where most of their prey
comes from. Researchers are only beginning to understand the relationships
between these species and their prey.
Seabirds and seals, have been shown to respond in a species specific to
both latitude and longitude in the Ross Sea (Saino and Guglielmo 1999). The
latitudinal response was variable depending on time in the summer season and
sea ice cover. In this way there is an important interaction between latitude and
small seasonal climate shifts. Current studies show that there is a direct
relationship of Adelie penguin breeding success to sea ice distribution.
The distribution and abundance of birds especially penguins and petrels in
the Ross Sea Region is influenced by oceanographic features, the occurrence
of ice and the location of breading sites (Ainley et. al. 1998). Environmental
changes along the Victoria Land coast have specific effects on each species.
For instance, in the case of Adele Penguins, one of the most important factors
influencing breeding sites is the presence of fast ice.
Inter-decadal variability in salinity and water mass formation in the Ross Sea
(Jacobs and Giulivi 1998) suggest a recent trend towards fresher surface
waters, with salinity changes in the order of 0.1-0.2 psu. They point out that
while such changes may not have any direct impact on sponges and penguins,
the resultant subtle effects on anchor ice and sea ice formation will markedly
impact on the biota. A latitudinal gradient study where small changes in sea ice
occur across the gradient will therefore greatly assist in unravelling the
complexities associated with current rates of regional climate change.
28
7. RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS
Currently New Zealand has a limited capability to study the oceanography of
the Ross Sea. However hydrographic work is beginning with an inshore
bathymetric survey in 2001 and current work on the physics of sea ice
communities is being extended to include the biology of sea ice (T. Haskell and
I. Hawes pers. comm.). The extensive work in the Ross Sea recently carried out
by Italian researchers (Spezie et al. 1999, Faranda et al. 1999) adding to the
decades of US National Science Foundation research (see Jacobs and Weiss
1998 and earlier volumes of Antarctic Research Series) has demonstrated
spatial variability in physical and biological components of the Ross Sea.
During the workshop the contrasts between marine and terrestrial and
freshwater ecosystems was noted. Antarctic marine ecosystems are noted for
their high biodiversity and high levels of endemism [Dayton, 1994 #9353]. In
areas not exposed to disturbance due to anchor ice formation or iceberg scour,
marine benthic communities are typically highly structured by biological
interactions. Environmental conditions are relatively consistent; although in
coastal benthic systems decadal scale oceanographic variations can result in
major shifts in trophic interactions and the structure of benthic communities.
Similar to other marine systems fluxes play an important role in influencing local
ecosystem and community structure and function. This is clearly illustrated by
the role of advected primary production in the structure of coastal benthic
communities in McMurdo Sound. The features emphasise the importance of
local biotic processes and broad-scale oceanographic variation; the interaction
of which are likely to result in environmental gradients markedly different from
those apparent in terrestrial ecosystems
Three research priorities were proposed by participants at the workshop.
These were: The physical constraint; Biodiversity; and Influence of ice
coverage. Participants agreed that process oriented research under these
three priorities was needed in all stages leading to the formulation of predictive
models.
1.
The physical constraint: The Oceanography of the Ross Sea coastal
zone
Knowledge of the hydrographic conditions of the Ross Sea region is
increasing rapidly and the most recent hydrographic work in the Ross Sea has
shown that conditions vary greatly along the Victoria Land coast (Spezie et al.
1999).
Jacobs and Giulivi (1998) describe the large-scale circulation of the Ross
Sea with westward and north-westward flows. Surface Water, Low Salinity Shelf
Water and Circumpolar Deep Water enter from the north and east and are
29
seasonally cooled, warmed salinised by sea ice formation and freshened by
meltwater and precipitation, resulting in seasonal and spatially complex patterns
which have been mapped at times. These authors point out the significance of
High Salinity Shelf Water, its inter-decadal variability and links to small changes
in climate and subsequent sea-ice formation. Biological consequences of these
phenomena are potentially extensive and need further study. A major feature,
the Ross Sea Polynya is understood in a broad sense (Bromwich et al. 1998)
but knowledge of its impact on the biota of the Ross Sea is only beginning to be
assembled (Faranda et al. (Eds.). 2000).
A further key to biological productivity in the Ross Sea is Antarctic Surface
Water. We are still in the earlier stages of understanding its sources, sinks and
residence time on the Ross Sea continental shelf. In restricted areas off large
glaciers, freshwater melt may define the inshore benthic and perhaps the sea
ice communities. Melt water pools and moats associated with semi-permanent
sea ice can also play a locally important role in fuelling benthic and sea-ice
communities, especially in oligotrophic coastal regions (see [Dayton, 1977
#191])
2.
Bio-diversity of the marine biota in the Ross Sea
New Zealand research contributed specifically to marine taxonomic work in
the 1960s and 1970s, but his work ended with the switch from ship to air
support. There is a current funding commitment by New Zealand for increased
work on the biodiversity of the Ross Sea. There is a need for biodiversity
studies on pelagic, benthic and sea-ice communities and particularly on
microbial components of these.
The density and diversity of macrofauna in the shallow subtidal of McMurdo
Sound can be very high (Dayton & Oliver, 1977). However, little is known of
habitat diversity, much of which is likely to be biogenic in nature. The Antarctic
provided a good natural laboratory in which to study habitat landscapes with a
high component of biogenic structure, and many natural and anthropogenic
disturbances are either absent or vary in predicable way down environmental
gradients. The functional aspects of marine biodiversity (i.e., relationships
between community structure and community and ecosystem processes) are
largely unknown.
3.
Influence of ice coverage on biota in the Ross Sea
The impact of variable ice conditions on the coastal ecosystems is clear. In
priority order, work for New Zealand should be concentrated on:

The fast ice

The pack ice

The polynyas
30
The influence of sea-ice on ecosystem processing and conversely the
feedbacks between the microbial communities and sea-ice physics are likely to
change with latitude up the Victoria Land Coast and predictive modelling of ice
cover and its ecosystem effects will require a knowledge of these processes.
Ainley et al 1998 demonstrated effects of se-ice on bird populations along the
Victoria Land coast and this work needs to be extended.
In the longer term, consideration should be given to the ecosystem beneath
the Ross Ice Shelf. Such research will require a multinational approach.
31
8. Site Selection
The workshop considered possible sites for base camps along the Victoria
Land coast. The results shown below are a combination of the three group
presentations and the discussion that followed. There were seven sites
selected. Each site is shown with a number corresponding to the sequence that
the site should be used. Each site would be the focus of study for 2 to 3
seasons. The sites were selected based on previous research done at the
location and the availability of suitable habitats within easy access of the site.
Note that emphasis has been placed on terrestrial sites. Marine research is
anticipated to be approximately offshore of these locations where possible, but
is more likely to be continuous along the navigable coast.
5
3
1
Possible Study Sites
2
4
6
Ross Sea
7
Figure 3. Possible study sites: 1- along the coast near the Dry Valleys to link
directly to the LTER sites in the Taylor Valley; 2 – Terra Nova Bay area to link
directly or complement with Italian collaborators; 3 – Darwin Glacier; 4 –
Coulman Island; 5 – Beardmore Glacier or La Gorce Mountains; 6 – Cape
Hallett;
7
–
Northern
Coast
32
9. Environmental Requirements
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty establishes
Antarctica as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science" and provides for
the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and
associated ecosystems. The Protocol is enforced in New Zealand legislation
through the Antarctica (Environmental Protection) Act 1994. A summary of the
principles is given in Appendix 1, which also provides a description of the
various levels of Environmental Impact assessment required for field
operations.
The approach taken to the environmental planning and management of the
LGP will depend very much on whether it is considered as one large project, or
a programme of smaller events. There are plenty of precedents for field parties
of 10-20 people with vehicle support such as skidoos. Events of similar size
have been held most seasons since the establishment of Scott Base, and in
recent times has usually only required PEE level assessment, with careful
planning to minimise impacts (see Appendix 1 for detail).
An example of multi-site projects which took environmental considerations
into account are the Dry Valleys Drilling Programme of the 1970s, and McMurdo
Sound Sediment and Tectonic Studies (MSSTS) of the early 1980s. Although
the environmental protection measures were not as stringent as under the
Environmental Protocol, the EIAs undertaken for these programmes covered
physical disturbances at the sites, potential impacts such as spills or
uncontrolled hydrocarbon releases from cores, and also incorporated on-site
monitoring and auditing.
Important lessons can be learned from past experiences such as the DVDP,
MSSTS and Cape Roberts Project. Environmental considerations need to be an
integral part of planning from the outset and carried throughout the
implementation and close-out of the project. Many decisions will have to be
made, and the following practical considerations should be taken into account :

Sufficient time must be allowed for the chosen level of EIA and approval
processes to be completed. There is also likely to be an iterative cycle of
changes to both the EIA and the planned activity, as more the activity
becomes more defined and the EIA indicates the most environmentally
acceptable approaches).

Budget should be allocated to allow for the EIA process, environmental
management, monitoring and auditing, and post-activity remediation if
necessary.

A person or persons with specific environmental roles and responsibilities
should designated in the management structure.
33
10. LOGISTICS
Several structures for operating the project were discussed. These ranged
from a loose assessment of individual projects with no central co-ordination,
through to a strongly centralised project with an administrative structure.
Management
The workshop participants favoured a management structure for the project
with a lead scientist and a project manager who would be responsible for
logistics co-ordination. These individuals would be part time on the project.
The amount of time devoted to the project would be dependent on the size of
the project and may vary each season. The lead scientist should have a strong
biological or ecological background and is expected to co-ordinate science
activities with Principal Investigators (Event leaders) from different institutes and
internationally and work closely with the Science Manager of Antarctica New
Zealand. Although there are other disciplines involved, the main area of
research is related to ecosystem studies. International logistics co-ordination
will be handled through Antarctica New Zealand.
Locations
The identification of the location for each campsite needs to be completed
and agreed on at least two years before deployment. However, there are some
common parameters that do exist regardless of the location. First of all, the
campsite size (total weight) will be kept as small as possible. This will help
reduce transport demands, minimise set-up and break-down time and minimise
the environmental impact. Secondly, along with sleeping and mess quarters an
on-site laboratory will be needed to house instruments needed in the field to
make real-time decisions on research activities. To meet the first constraint the
instruments taken to the field will be closely scrutinised with regard to their
immediate need. Finally, there must be some form of transportation available to
researchers at the campsite location for remote site access in order to facilitate
the “transect” approach (see Section 2) at each location. There are two
possible modes of transportation, helicopter or land-based which are discussed
in the scenarios below.
Temporal Variability
The research planed for this project will need large temporal coverage as
well as spatial extent. Many of the parameters and systems studied vary
greatly during the season therefore measurements of physical parameters,
biological activity, etc. are needed early (early October) and must extend as
long as possible (mid-February). Ideally, the measurements would begin well
before the first thaw period and proceed until the final freeze period has taken
place for each location. Therefore, equipment for each site may need to be prepositioned for early operation and stored “on-site” at the end of operation.
Because of yearly variations it has also been suggested that each site study
34
take place over multiple years, and that meteorological and other physical
measurements begin at least a year before any ecosystem work. The US
National Science Foundation is currently considering extending the science
season beyond February (Priscu J. C., (Ed.) 2001).
Three scenarios pertaining to style and size of camps at the study location
are presented below although it is recognised that this is a continuum between
these and that camp sizes may also vary between years.
Scenario 1. (Minimalist approach)
In this approach (depending on funding) one or more locations may operate
at any one time. Camps would accommodate up to ten researchers utilising
small sleeping tents (Olympus type) with one large mess tent and one or more
laboratory tents (Weatherhaven or Polarhaven style). There may be up to three
small science events or discipline groups in the camp, collaborating closely and
sharing camp duties.
Scenario 2 . (Supported Camp for LGP personnel
In this scenario work directly related to the Latitudinal Gradient Project would
be supported and the camp would be the main focus location for the LGP at that
time. The camp size for this type of work could house be anywhere between 5
and 20 scientists at any one time. Therefore a reasonably substantial (but
highly portable) camp would be needed. It is envisaged that scientists would
come and go from the main camp area both out to the field and to Scott Base
depending on the science plan for that particular season. Approximately 30
people may go through the camp in any given year. A camp manager may be
needed. Small tents (Olympus type) would be used for sleeping but a
reasonably substantial mess tent and two or more laboratory tents (or
collapsible huts) would be required.
If the LGP transect work could be covered on foot there would be no need
for continuous helicopter support on-site. Transport up glaciers and out on the
sea-ice would be skidoo based. Most of the marine work would be done via
ship, however there is a possibility that small boats could be needed on the site
for late summer marine work. The location of diving work may be restricted by
access and transport to the McMurdo decompression facility.
Scenario 3. (Transect plus other research)
Once a location has been established there may be other science events not
directly related to the project that may wish to use the camp and its logistic
support. In this scenario we envisage a larger camp with possibly helicopter
support. The added value of the logistics support for other events would have
to be looked at on a seasonal basis. The camp size would be slightly larger
than in Scenario Two with up to 20 people at location at one time. Tents and or
collapsible huts would be the same (but more numerous) than in Scenario Two.
It is envisaged that scientists would come and go from the main camp either out
in the field or back to Scott Base. There would need to be a camp manager. If
35
there was added helicopter support, there would be an increased infrastructure
at the main camp. A total number of approximately 40 people may go through
the camp in any given year.
36
11.
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40
12.
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Name
Institution
email address
Aislabie, Jackie
Landcare
aislabiej@landcare.cri.nz
Barrett, Peter
Victoria University of Wellington
Peter.Barrett@vuw.ac.nz
Barton, Kerry
Landcare
BartonK@landcare.cri.nz
Campbell, Iain
Consultant
iaincampbell@xtra.co.nz
Cleary, Peter
Antarctica New Zealand
p.cleary@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Cowie, Jim
Antarctica New Zealand
j.cowie@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Dickinson, Warren
Victoria University of Wellington
warren.dickinson@vuw.ac.nz
Finnemore, Michelle
Gateway Antarctica
m.finnemore@anta.canterbury.ac.nz
Fitzsimons, Sean
University of Otago
sjf@perth.otago.ac.nz
Gee, Rebecca
Antarctica New Zealand
r.gee@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Gordon, Shulamit
Antarctica New Zealand
shulibulli@hotmail.com
Green, Allan
University of Waikato
greentga@waikato.ac.nz
Haskell, Tim
IRL
t.haskell@irl.cri.nz
Howard-Williams, Clive
NIWA
c.howard-williams@niwa.cri.nz
Goff, James
GeoEnvironmental Consultants
james.goff@xtra.co.nz
Lawson, Wendy
University of Canterbury
w.lawson@geog.canterbury.ac.nz
Lyons, Berry
The Ohio State University, USA
lyons.142@osu.edu
Macdonald, John
University of Auckland
ja.macdonald@auckland.ac.nz
Mahon, Mike
Antarctica New Zealand
m.mahon@antarcticanz.govt.nz
McKenzie, Richard
NIWA
r.mckenzie@niwa.cri.nz
Mountfort, Doug
Cawthron Institute
doug@environment.cawthron.org.nz
Murdoch, Rob
NIWA
r.murdoch@niwa.cri.nz
Peterson, Dean
Antarctica New Zealand
d.peterson@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Pilditch, Conrad
University of Waikato
Pilditch@waikato.ac.nz
Ryan, Ken
IRL
K.Ryan@irl.cri.nz
Sheppard, Doug
Geochemical Solutions
d.sheppard@xtra.co.nz
Sinclair, Brent
University of Otago
brent.sinclair@stonebow.otago.ac.nz
Steven, Jenny
FRST
Jenny@frst.govt.nz
Stewart, Brian
University of Otago
brianstewart@clear.net.nz
Storey, Bryan
Gateway Antarctica
b.storey@anta.canterbury.ac.nz
Taler, Michael
Auckland University of Technology
michael.taler@aut.ac.nz
Tangaere, Julian
Antarctica New Zealand
j.tangaere@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Thrush, Simon
NIWA
s.thrush@niwa.cri.nz
Waterhouse, Emma
Antarctica New Zealand
e.waterhouse@antarcticanz.govt.nz
Wratt, Gillian
Antarctica New Zealand
g.wratt@antarcticanz.govt.nz
41
APPENDIX 1
Summary of Principles from the Environmental
Protocol, and Levels of Environmental Impact
Assessment relevant to this Proposal
Requirements under the Environmental Protocol
Article 3 of the protocol sets out principles that all parties must adhere to,
including specific requirements for:

all activities to be planned and conducted so as to limit adverse impacts on
the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems
including on biological, scientific, aesthetic and wilderness values;

all activities to be planned and conducted on the basis of sufficient
information to assess impacts; and

monitoring to take place.
This makes careful planning including collection of relevant background
information, completion of an environmental impact assessment, and provision
for monitoring essential to ensuring any programme of activities is compliant
with the Protocol and New Zealand legislation.
Annexes to the Protocol build on these principles by providing additional
specific rules for implementation. Of relevance are the following:

Environmental Impact Assessment (three possible levels of detail dependent
on assessment of effects as more than, less than or equal to “minor and
transitory”)

Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (“harmful interference” with
native plants and animals prohibited except in accordance with a permit)

Waste Disposal and Waste Management (plans for minimisation and
management to be in place, disposal to ice free areas prohibited,
requirements for field camps/stations to be followed, certain substances
prohibited)

Area Protection and Management (protected areas to be designated and
entered only in accordance with a permit and the relevant management
plan).

Antarctica New Zealand has set out guidelines to ensure compliance with
the Protocol (see Dry Valleys Code of Conduct and Antarctica New Zealand
Code of Conduct).
Other New Zealand legislation which needs to be taken into consideration
includes the Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978 and the Antarctic Marine
Living Resources Act 1981, which require permits for holding and taking marine
organisms, and the Biosecurity Act 1993 and Hazardous Substances and New
Organisms Act 1996, which require permits for importing organisms and other
samples into New Zealand.
42
Environmental Impact Assessment
The most basic level of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), the
Preliminary Environmental Evaluation (PEE), is completed for almost all New
Zealand activities, including science and logistics support. It is appropriate for
activities which have very low or very short term impacts.
For activities which have a minor or transitory effect, an Initial Environmental
Evaluation (IEE) is completed. Examples of activities for which IEEs have been
carried out include:

Changes to bases/stations (e.g. removal of Greenpeace’s ‘World Park Base’
at Cape Evans and New Zealand’s Vanda Station in the Wright Valley, bulk
fuel storage upgrade at Scott Base)

Scientific research with greater than usual potential impact (e.g. diving in Dry
Valleys lakes, geological drilling)

Private expeditions (e.g. Ice Trek and other polar traverses, Mt Erebus
skiing)

Exploratory fishing in the Ross Sea region

Tourism cruises in the Ross Sea region
The highest level of assessment is the Comprehensive Environmental
Evaluation (CEE). It usually has a similar content to an IEE, but greater detail.
New Zealand’s CEE for the Cape Roberts Scientific Drilling Project was one of
the first to be completed for an Antarctic activity. The Project’s activities
included a drill rig, sea ice based support camp and land based storage
facilities. It ran over five seasons, with 2000/2001 dedicated to facility removal
and site remediation. The Project had its own environmental monitoring and
auditing programme, developed as part of the CEE, and achieved very high
levels of compliance and performance.
According to the Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment in Antarctica
(COMNAP, 1999), an EIA of IEE or CEE level should include:

Description of the purpose and need for the proposed activity

Description of the activity and alternatives, including not proceeding, and
their consequences

Description of the initial environmental reference state, and expected future
state without the activity

Description of methods and data used to predict impacts

Estimation of nature, extent, duration and intensity of impacts, including
indirect and cumulative impacts

Monitoring programmes

Mitigation and remediation measures

Identification of unavoidable impacts

Effects of activity on scientific and other values

Identification of gaps in knowledge
The CEE is the only level of EIA which is required under the Protocol to be
made publicly available and circulated to all the Treaty Parties. The minimum
times required for circulation of a CEE under the Protocol is outlined below
43
(after COMNAP, 1999). Further time would also need to be allowed for
consultation during the drafting process.
Requirements for circulation of CEEs
under the Protocol for Environmental
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Draft CEE circulated
3 months
Deadline for comments
4 months
ATCM
Decision to proceed
Final CEE circulated
2 months
Activity commences