IS 472 - Systems
In order to explain how opportunities and risks are intricately related to Information systems, Ian Angel explains the notion of
system in itself. This viewpoint on systems will be the base of the analysis on why IS issues are inherently problematical.
Information systems are social systems whose behaviour is heavily influenced by the goals, values and beliefs of individuals and
groups, as well as by the performance of the technology.
I- Analysis or interpretation, critique of the scientific approach
The scientific approach that allows to create the technological artefacts is inappropriate for application within organisations due to
a different type of complexity: organisations are more organisms then machines. Organisations are the stage of social and
political struggles. If each interest group is rational in its way of behaving (increase its power), the interest of the groups varies
and often opposes one another. IS can help support the informational process of a company, but only if the methods used are able
to adapt to the specific of an organisation.
Reductionism can be defined as the identification of general laws of causality, and the neutrality of the observer. According to
this functionalist theory, a problem situation can be broken down into its constituent parts in order to render it susceptible to
analysis. However, as Sir Geoffroy Vickers points out: “every org., must be more and less than the sum of its parts” (synergy).
Another element underlying the scientific approach is repeatable experiments. Physical science relies on controlled experiments
that can be repeated and refuted. However, social institutions are intrinsically singular and too dynamic and complex to permit
repeatedness. The use of the same technology can lead to very different results.
Finally, the objective observer, who would be independent, could be opposed. We are all conditioned by our particular values and
biases. We are always interpreting situations.
II- Systems thinking
1- The system
The systems approach emphasises the limitations of reductionist thinking without rejecting analytical, mathematical and
engineering principles. This view is limited due to the paradoxical non-systemic nature of elements within a system. The systems
approach stresses the need to treat any system as a whole. It goes beyond systematic thinking to systemic, interpreting from the
systems viewpoint that is both analytic and synthetic.
A system can be defined as “an assembly of parts/components/elements connected together in an organised way, as a whole – one
that cannot be divided into independent parts. This particular assembly will have been identified by a human observer as being of
special interest. The behaviour of each element has an effect on the behaviour of the system as a whole.” For instance the human
body can be considered as a system. As a system is observer-relative it will always be restrictive.
A sub-system is an ensemble of elements that also forms a system in itself. It will affect the behaviour of the whole, and they are
all interdependent. For instance a skin cell can be the sub-system of a toe and the toe, a sub-system of the foot.
2- The boundaries
The boundary is what the observer perceives as a separation between the system and its environment. However, what comprises
the system is structurally coupled to the environment. We tend to treat the remainder as a residual category and thus make it
disappear even though it may still affect the system, which is why systems are intrinsically ambiguous. For instance, is the air in
the lungs part of the body system? The boundary, as a human choice carries a set of purpose and priorities. The reference state
is the generalised version of the system itself to the observer. A system may be closed, where nothing outside the boundary can
cross inside, unless pre-chosen. It can also be open leaving the possibility for unknown elements to have effect on it.
3- The feed back
Changes in the environment feed back across the boundary to modify and amplify the system itself. Indeed the environment is
made of other systems and the system outputs a lot of elements. The feedback is a form of representation of the structural coupling
between the system and its environment. A feed back is negative when it counteracts any disruptive process and reinforces the
stability of the system (ex: stopping to breathe). Positive feedback amplifies the processes that carry the actual state of the system
away from the reference state. (ex: dying and going in decomposition). Feedforward is the ability for a system to anticipate a
discrepancy. These systems can create schematic descriptions of the environment and themselves.
No system is passive (ex: a simple cell), it has to be adaptive to the continual changes of the environment. It must survive,
reproduce, and be purposeful... It also has to have equifinality, the ability to achieve the same results in different ways and from
different initial conditions. Positive feedback can heavily distort the system that can then become a different one. (ex: caterpillar
becomes a butterfly). An IS is everything that emerges from the existence of the computer and its relationship with the
environment.
4- Identity
Homeostasis is a self-organising property of the system that allows it to maintain dynamically a specific identity. In order to do so
the system needs energy, material, info...
A system is negentropic (negative entropy) when it is perceived as negative to entropy, the thermodynamic principle that systems
run down to ultimate disorder or death, to the state of maximum entropy.
5- Provenances
- Emergence and Hierarchy (organismic provenance). Sub systems exist in a hierarchical way with macro system encapsulating
micro ones. (ex: cell/toe/foot...). It is considered that the elements of a macro-level are identified by emergent properties that do
not exist at a lower micro-level: new levels, new laws. Similarly, the aggregation of individual behaviours can’t describe
emergent social behaviours. For instance the micro-phenomena of mass-mailing technology doesn’t explain junk mail.
Due to the effects of multiple feedback, unexpected structures or functions can emerge in systems. (ex: computer viruses). This
generates the question: at what level of the coming together of things doe functions emerge? (ex: brain)
- Communication and Control (tech. Provenance). Communication between the elements of the system is need in order for it to
regulate itself and to control its actions and reactions, to maintain its identity. Every system requires a sub-system (information
one) to support these provenances (ex: computer in an IS). There is no permanent control because the system is continuously
evolving (ex: computer shut down).
6-
Autopoesis and allopesis
An autopoetic system is a self-creating, self repairing and self-perpetuating one. Plus they maintain a coherent unity (ex:
biological organism). An allopetic system is the product of other component producing systems but different from them. They
have no autonomy (ex: bureaucratic system).
7- Simplification and closure
Functional simplification implies a reduction of an initial complexity that is subsequently streamlined by the observer’s choice
of system. Closure implies the construction of a kind of protective cocoon that is placed around the selected causal sequences or
processes to safeguard undesired interference and ensure their repeatable and reliable operation (kallinikos, 2006)
8- Self-reference
Self reference was first described for the language as a “uniquely circular structure where an effect becomes a causative factor for
future effects, influencing them in a manner particularly subtle, variable, flexible and of an endless number of possibilities”.
(Korzybski, 1948). There are three meanings to the term (Geyer, 2002):
- neutral: any changes in the system’s state are dependent upon the state of that system at a previous moment
- biological: the system contains information and knowledge about itself
- second-order cybernetic: a system collects info. About its own functioning, which can further contribute to a change of its
functioning
The key aspects of self-reference are:
- it is fundamental to the formation and survival of a system as it helps sustaining its functions. It is thus autopoietic
- it reduces environmental complexity, it exploits its patterns of selections and is able to increase its internal complexity, to cope
with environmental change
- it is fundamental for info. processing
III- Disposition and Ashby’s Law of requisite Variety
In an ever changing environment, a system, to be effective, must generate a variety of responses to match changes. In other terms,
ashby’s law is “The larger the variety of actions available to a control system, the larger the variety of perturbations it is able to
compensate”. A system must develop sufficient internal variety to respond to perpetual changes in its environment, and hence to
survive and flourish. Via feedback, the system is constantly refined.
Disposition is the faculty of setting the system in order, or the condition of being set in order. It is the due arrangement of the
several parts of a system in reference to its general systemic structure, especially for the accomplishment of a purpose. It can be
the distribution of systemic components, their allocation, destination, the preparations or measures taken, the arrangement of
systemic duties, or the condition of complexion of affairs. It is an inclination, intention, aptitude, capacity or purpose, the
condition of the system being disposed towards its environment. A disposition is a permanent, normal and natural condition of
a system.
IV- Strategic /Strategy and Tactics
1- Strategic/Strategy
Strategic describes any influence that has a lasting effect on the disposition of an organisation/system. It emerges from human
action but not necessarily its design. It is perceived as a benefit if it increases the system’s ability to generate variety.
Strategy is a purposeful human decision and action that is intended to be strategic. Thus strategies are not long-term plans, they
are have an intent to change that may not be achieved. The action of everyone in an organisation will, to a certain degree,
influence its disposition. The emergent disposition of a system can modify or oppose the intentions of the strategy. A strategy will
only be accepted when the receiving system is well disposed towards it.
2- Tactics
Tactics are the arrangement of procedure, the action to be taken, in order to fulfil and end or objective. As a system is trying to
profit from its environment it senses and interprets and reacts to events observed in it. The decisions are transmitted in forms of
tactics. Competitive advantage is thus tactical and not strategic.
3- Strategy versus Tactics
Strategy and tactics can be mutually contradictory. Strategies are aimed inwardly, at the system whereas tactics are aimed out at
the environment. Competition is tactical, the ability to compete is strategic. Strategies and tactics are usually a recipe list.
V- Dispositionning
Ashby’s law implies that an organisation should have enough internal variety to respond to changes. Short term tactical thinking
has thus to be recognised by management.
Accepting system thinking and their behaviour can cause problems with the standard ways of dealing with IS. The change must be
seen as a systemic reality and not necessarily a systematic one. Thus IS management should be driven by a description of the
behaviour of systems, and by an avoidance of the pitfalls of the anthropocentric view, where human intent is seen as the ultimate
driving force.
A pre-programmed causal mechanism, when introduced in a wider biz environment is often uncontrollable. Uncertainty must
thus be recognised as emergent and learn how to cope with it. Responses based on mechanistic views and not systemic ones may
have little effect. Thus uncertainty should be dealt with by using appropriate tactical responses.
The construction of a model of any system places an artificial boundary around it, and freezes it with a restricted interpretation
based on a mechanistic classification that is at best a good analogy of past performance. When used to enhance (rather than
replace) intellect, information systems can be useful tools, and can form an opportunistic framework for coping with future
innovations, trends and requirements, as well as minimise dangers.
The unquestioning acceptance of their models and simulations of open-ended human experience is sheer folly. Every mechanism
and measure we use has limitations and a hidden agenda of choice. Their interaction with components in a system reflects an act
of faith in the existence of the element, the property and the system. The existence of the system has to be perceived, a boundary
imposed. No emergent property can be measured or manipulated before it has emerged from the unknown.