Psychology is the science that studies behaviour and its causes
Goals of psychology:
1) Measure and Describe behaviour ( develop measuring techniques) intro/extraversion
2) Understanding and Prediction ( hypothesis: relationship between 2 variables) twin studies
3) Application and Control (hope that the info will have practical value to solving everyday issues)
7 Themes in Psychology
1) Psychology is empirical
Empiricism: premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation, conclusions are
based on direct observation rather than reasoning, speculation or common sense)
2) Psychology is theoretically diverse
Must construct theories (theory: a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of
observations)
3) Psychology evolves in Socio historical context
Psychology develops in a social and historical context
4) Behaviour is determined by multiple causes
Multi-factorial causation of behaviour: behaviour is governed by a complex network of
interacting factors.
5) Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage
Peoples cultural backgrounds exert considerable influence over their behaviour
Ex// our culture: don’t leave food on plate vs Indian culture : leaving food signifies generosity
6) Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour
Nature vs nature or heredity vs environment
7) Peoples experiences of the world is highly subjective
People see what they want to see, people see what they expect to see
Careers in Psychology
 i) Professional Practice:
 Clinical/Counseling
 Clinical Psychologists
 Psychiatrists, psychoanalysts
 Educational/School Psychology
 Industrial/Organizational
 ii) Research/Academia:
 Developmental
 Social
 Experimental
 Physiological
 Cognitive
 Personality
 Psychometrics
 Abnormal/Clinical
 Health
Theoretical Perspectives (BBCEHP)
1) Biological: How physiology affects thoughts & behaviour. Physical explanations
2) Behaviour: how the environment shapes behaviour. Eg// reward and punishment
3) Cognitive: how your mind (conscious thoughts) influence behaviour. Focuses on thought pattern
4) Evolutionary: focuses on how behaviours is shaped by what leads greater chances of survival
5) Humanistic: freedom of choice and self actualization. Drive to become a fully actualised person
6) Psychoanalytic : how unconscious drives and defence mechanism control behaviour
Wilhelm Wundt (structuralism)
Mounted a campaign to make psych an independent discipline
Established the first formal lab for research in psych (1879)
The intellectual climate favoured his scientific approach
Scientific study of conscious experience, 1st thought of psych, structuralism; task of psych is to analyze
consciousness into the basic elements and to see how these elements are related
B.F. Skinner (Behaviourism) FREE WILL IS AN ILLUSION (1950s)
Radical behaviourism
Believed that there was little need to study internal, mental events explaining behaviour.
Fundamental Principle: (operant conditioning) organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive
outcomes, and tend not the repeat responses that lead to negative consequences.
He suggested that all behaviour is fully governed by external stimuli
People are controlled by their environment, not by themselves
Carl Rogers (Humanism) & Abraham Maslow (1950s)
Psychoanalytical and behaviourism were criticised because they suggested that people were not
masters of their own destinies. Failure to recognize unique qualities of human beings.
This is an optimistic view of human nature
Carl argues that human behaviour is governed primarily by each individuals sense of self or self concept
(animals lack)
The greatest contribution of humanistic approach: innovative treatments for psychological problems
&disorders
William James (Functionalism) 1890
Published Principles of Psychology, believes that consciousness consists of continuous flow of thoughts
or a stream of consciousness.
Should investigate the functions of consciousness rather than the structure
G. Stanley Hall: founded APA (American Psychological Association)
Ivan Pavlov (Behaviourism 1904) classical conditioning (a type of learning in which neural stimulus
acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
Alfred Binet: applied psychology, first successful intelligence testing.
Margaret Washburn: first woman to receive a PhD. The animal mind (1910), rises the research of animal
psychology.
Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytical Theory)
Personality is largely based on unconscious thoughts and desires : contains thoughts, memories, desires
that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence of
behaviour
One of the most controversial intellectual figures
Treated people with troubled irrational fears, obsessions and anxiety with psychoanalysis ( an insight
therapy that emphasizes the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives & differences through recovery
of unconscious conflicts, motives and differences through techniques such as free association and
transference)
Max Wertheimer: Gestalt psychology (1920), the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, perception.
Martin Selighman : positive psychology (positive, adaptive, creative and fulfilling aspects of human
existence, rather than pathology and suffering) (1990s)
Steps in scientific investigation
1) Formulate a testable hypothesis
2) Select research method and design study
3) Collection of data
4) Analyze data and draw conclusions (statistics are used) 5) Report the findings (journals)
Research Methods
Looking for causes: Experimental Research
Experiment: investigators manipulate a variable under controlled conditions and observes whether any
changes occur in a 2nd variable as a result. How x affects y
Independent variable: the variable that experimenter controls/manipulates in order to see impact on y
Dependent variable: the outcome, something that is affected by the manipulation
Experimental groups: subjects that receive a special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Controlled group: consists of similar subjects who do not receive special treatment
The only difference between controlled and experimental group should be the treatment they receive in
regard to the independent variable.
Xxx affects y OR x affects yyy
Looking for links: Descriptive of Correlation research
Naturalistic observation: researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening
directly with the subjects.
This is called naturalistic because it unfolds naturally (without interference) in its natural environment
Strength: observed in less artificial conditions
Disadvantage: trouble making their observations unobtrusively so they don’t affect their participants
behaviour. Can’t make conclusions about what caused what
Case studies: in-depth investigation of a subject (victims of suicide) good for investigating a certain
phenomenon ie. Psychological disorders & neuropsychological issues. They provide compelling, real life
illustrations. Weakness: can be highly subjective
Surveys: questionnaires, interviews to gather info about specific aspects of participants behaviour.
Weakness: depend on self- report data, not all are conducted with care. Strenght: make it easy to
collect data.
Looking for Conclusions : statistics and research
Statistics: use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numeric data
Descriptive Statistics: used to organize and summarize data
Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode
Variability: refers to how much the scores of a data vary from each other and form the mean
Standard Deviation: index of the amount of the variable in a set of data
Correlation: exists when two variables are related to each other.
Correlation Coefficient: numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
Looking for Flaws: Evaluating Research
Replication: repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
Sampling Bias: exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.
Placebo effects: occur when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even
though they receive empty, fake or ineffectual treatment.
Social desirability bias: tendency to give socially approved answered to questions about oneself.
A response set: tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of
the question.
Experimenter bias: occurs when a researchers expectations or preferences about the outcome of a
study influence the result obtained.
Looking to the future: the internet and psychological research
Internet mediated research : studies in which data collection is done using the web. Benefits: can obtain
large data collection, more diverse collection, data can be collected 24/7, reduce costs, save time.
Weakness: potential sampling bias, lower participation rates, less controlled conditions, distractions
when doing a survey at home
Ethics in Research (4 principles)
1) Respect the dignity of the persons
2) Responsible caring
3) Integrity in relationships
4) Responsibility to society
5 areas of psychological research
1) Developmental – development across life span (childhood to old age)
2) Social – interpersonal behaviour, how people act in groups
3) Experimental- basic human processes, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion
4) Physiological – role of physical systems ( like the brain) in determining behaviour
5) Psychometrics- designing psychological tests and techniques for statistical analysis
CHAPTER 3- THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
Relationship between Mind and body
In simple terms, monism is the belief that ultimately the mind and the brain are the same thing, whereas
dualists believe that the mind and the brain are separate.
There are two communication systems in the body
1) Endocrine: a group of glands that release chemicals into the bloodstream that helps control
bodily functioning.
2) Nervous system: Nervous system fall into 2 major categories
 Glia : cells found throughout the nervous system that provide types of support for
neurons. (glue) much smaller then neurons, outnumber neurons 10 to 1. They supply
nourishment to neurons, help remove waste products, provide insulation.
 Neurons: individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit
information. Talk to one another by neurotransmitters, they are the key to behaviors
and thought. Soma( cell body, contains the nucleus and much of the chemical machinery
common to most cells) Dendrites ( parts of the neuron that are specialized to receive
info, look like branches) Axon (long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma
to the other neurons or to muscles or other glands) Myelin sheath (axons are wrapped
around these high concentration of white fatty substance, it Is insulating material
derived from glial cells) Synapses (junction where info is transmitted from one neuron to
another)
Common Neurotransmitters and their functions
Acetylcholine (Ach) activates motors neurons controlling skeletal muscles, contributes to the regulation
of attention, arousal and memory, some are stimulated by nicotine
Dopamine (DA) contributes to the control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions, decreased
level = Parkinson, over activity = schizophrenia, cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA
synapses
Norepinephrine (NE) contributes to modulation of mood and arousal, cocaine and amphetamines
elevate activity at NE synapses, depression
Serotonin involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression. Abnormal levels =
depression, OCD. Prozac and similar anti depressants affect serotonin circuits
GABA serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter. Valium and other anti-anxiety drugs work at
GABA synapses
Endorphins resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects. Contribute to pain relief.
The Brain and Behavior
 a) Hindbrain:
C.M.P
 Cerebellum (little brain) critical to coordination of movement and the the sense of
equilibrium or physical balance, plays a big role in organizing the sensory info that
guides movements.
 Medulla ( attaches to the spinal cord, in charge of unconscious but vital functions, ie//
circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, regulating reflexes such as
sneezing, coughing , salivating)/
 Pons (bridge) contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal
 b) Midbrain: vision and hearing.
Dopamine system. Parkinsonism (due to degeneration of a structure located in the midbrain)
 Reticular formation (lies at the central core of the brain-stem, contributes to the
modulation of muscle flexes, breathing, pain perception, best known for the regulation
of sleep and arousal)

c) Forebrain: largest, most complex. Located near the top of the brainstem C.H.T.L
 Thalamus (relay center): all sensory info except smell must pass to get to the vertebral
cortex. directs sensation to the right place
 Hypothalamus regulated basic biological needs. Controls autonomic nervous system,
vital link between the brain and the endocrine system. The 4 fs ( fighting, fleeing,
feeding, f***) Above the roof of your mouth. Present in mammals.
 Cerebrum (the seat of complex thought) : divided into two halves. Critical for
precession. Largest most complex part of the human brain. Responsible for
remembering, thinking, consciousness. Cerebral hemisphere (right and left hemispheres
of the cerebrum) Cerebral cortex (convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum) Corpus
callosum (structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres)
 There are 4 lobes 1) occipital lobe ( back of the head, includes cortical area, most visual
signals are sent and visual processing is begun) 2) parietal lobe (forward of the occipital
love, sense of touch(primary soma to sensory cortex) 3) temporal lobe ( near the
temples, below the parietal lobe, auditory processing (primary auditory cortex) damage
can impair comprehension of speech and language. 4)frontal lobe (largest, movement of
muscles(primary motor cortex)
 Limbic System: Center of emotion, memory, motivation, Amygdala (emotion)
Hippocampus (memory)
Pleasure Centers . Includes dopamine releasing neurons in hypothalamus. Important for forming
new memory
Synaptic Transmission: 1) synthesis and storage 2) release 3) binding 4) inactivation or removal 5)
reuptake of neurotransmitters
Right Brain/Left Brain
Left Hemisphere: processes language, “dominant” hemisphere. Handles reasoning, remembering,
planning, problem solving
Right Hemisphere: Creative; recognizing faces, images, color, reading emotions, music, expressing
emotions.
Split Brain research: in split brain surgery, the bundle of fibres that connects the cerebral
hemispheres(the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.
Research Methods:
EEG: device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over the time by means of recording
electrodes attaches to the surface of the scalp. Brain wave recordings, different patterns are associated
with different states of mental activity.
Lesioning: involves destroying a piece of the brain, done by inserting an electrode into the brain
structure and passing a high frequency electric current through it to burn the tissue and disable the
structure.
ESB: involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation: new techniques that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or
depress activity in a specific area of the brain. Coil mounted on a paddle held over the persons head.
Brain-Imaging Procedures: CT ( computer enhanced x-ray of brain structure) PET ( position emission
tomography) examine brain functioning, mapping actually activity in the brain. Provides color coded
map. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields, radio waves, computerized enhancement
to map out brain structure, produces 3D images. FMRI (monitors blood flow and oxygen consumption in
the brain)
Brain Plasticity: the brain’s ability to change structure and function. Neurogenesis ( it was believed that
adults did not form new neurons) This may contribute to the natural repair processes that occur in the
brain after damage.
Heredity and Behaviour
Family Studies: researchers asses hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much
they resemble one another on a specific trait.
Twin Studies: researchers asses hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins
and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.
Adoption studies: by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological
and their adoptive parents.
Genetic Mapping: is the process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on
specific chromosomes.
Chapter 4: Perception
Distinction between sensation and perception
Sensation: the stimulation of sense organs. Sensation involves the absorption of energy such as light or
sound waves by sensory organs.
Perception: selection, organization and interpretation of sensory input.
Our Senses of Sight: Amplitude, height (effects mainly the perception of brightness) Wavelength (the
distance between the peaks, perception of color)
Fewer wavelengths = greater purity
Wavelength = hue, color Amplitude = perception of brightness Saturation= purity of the light wave
Structure of the Eye
Optic nerve - > visual cortex
Retina: light sensitive, lining the back surface of the eye
Cornea: light enters from here
Lens: light passes through cornea and through the crystalline lens, forms upside down image in retina
Pupil: opening in the centre of the eye, regulates the light that passes through.
Optic disk: hole in the retina that corresponds to the blind spot
Iris: coloured ring of muscle that surrounds the pupil
Fovea: tiny spot, in the centre of the retina where visual acuity is greatest
Visual receptors: rods, cones,receptive fields, lateral antagonism
The main visual pathway: parvoceullar channel, magnocellular channel
The second visual pathway: coordination of visual input with other sensory input
Primary visual cortex: in the optical love: handles initial cortial processing of visual inputs.
Feature detectors: neurons in the visual cortex that respond selectively to specific features of complex
stimuli
Accommodation : occurs when the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter vision.
Geshtalts Psychology (form or shape)
The whole can be greater than the sum of its parts
Phi Phenomenon : illusion of movement using visual stimuli in rapid succession
Geshalts Principles of perceptual organization
1) Proximity – objects that are close together seem grouped
2) Closure – tend to fill in visual gaps in familiar figures
3) Simplicity – tend to organize image into simplest form possible
4) Continuity – group items to create an image with a single direction (e.g. a line)smooth paths
5) Similarity – elements in your visual field tend to be grouped together
6) Law of good form – viewers organize forms in the simplest way possible
The Auditory System
Sound waves vary in amplitude (loudness) Wavelength (pitch) Purity (timbre)
Pinna ( external ear’s sound collecting cone) eardrum( which is a taut membrane at the end of the
auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves) ossicles ( three tiny
bones(hammer,anvil,stirrup) in the middle ear that convert the eardrums vibrations into smaller
motions) cochlea (fluid –filled coiled tunned that houses the inner ear’s neural tissue) basilar
membrane(hold the hair cells that serve as auditory receptors
Rods and cones convert physical stimulation to streams of Neural impulses are sent to the brain
Pitch perception 1) Place theory( perception of pitch depends on the portion of the basilar membrane
vibrated) 2) Frequence theory (perception of pitch depends on the basilar membranes rate of vibration