COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
Cognitive Dissonance and Selective Exposure in Public Relations
Katelyn Meeks
Radford University
1
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
2
In the field of public relations, practitioners are concerned with the interactions with our
publics and the messages that we send. Unfortunately, gauging the reactions to our messages is
not always an easy task. It is a goal of practitioners to craft messages so that they resonate better
with the intended publics. Using a theoretical approach is always useful in helping to form a
better understanding of application. Two theories of particular interests are cognitive dissonance
and selective exposure. In the present paper the major explanations, well-known contributors,
and possible applications of these theories are discussed in the context of public relations.
The initial presentation of cognitive dissonance began with the works of Leon Festinger
as a social psychology theory in 1957. Between 1957-1982, more than 900 articles were
published on cognitive dissonance (Frey, 1982, p. 1175). The theory works on the frequent
implication that individuals desire consistency in his or her self. Although there are exceptions, it
is important that individuals mostly have consistency between their opinions, beliefs, attitudes,
and behaviors. For example, a person who thinks being physically fit is important will most
likely work out and eat well to be physically fit (Festinger, 1957, p.1).
What Festinger was interested in was not necessarily when opinions, beliefs, and attitudes
are consistent, but when the inconsistencies occurred. Since inconsistencies do in fact occur, it is
important to understand what happens next. Festinger (1957) believed that people try to deal
with inconsistencies in several ways. He believed that he or she might try to explain or
rationalize the discrepancies. He provided an example of a person who believes smoking is bad
for their health but continues to smoke. The smoker may provide reasons to justify his or her
actions but might also just change their cognition about the behavior (p.6). When the
explanations are not successful however, a psychological discomfort occurs. When this
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
3
discomfort takes place, Festinger coined it as dissonance. Conversely, when the attitudes, beliefs,
and actions of individuals do align, it is called consonance.
Festinger’s (1957) basic hypotheses explained that the existence of dissonance would
motivate an individual to reduce it. Furthermore, an individual will consciously avoid any
information that would likely increase dissonance when discomfort is already present (p.3).
Moreover, people will attempt to reduce the dissonance by changing their attitude, avoiding or
ignoring the issue by seeking positive replacement information, or by reinterpreting the
dissonance to fit their current attitudes (Smith, 2008, p.47).
It is important to note that avoidance of dissonant information does not necessarily
reduce dissonance; it only prevents dissonance from becoming greater (Frey, 1982, p.1182).
According to Frey, cognitive dissonance proposes that the more dissonance one experiences after
decision-making, the more an individual will prefer supportive information and avoid opposing
information (p.1176). Closely related to cognitive dissonance are several concepts about
selectivity, especially selective exposure.
Selective exposure first gained prominence in social psychology in the context of
cognitive dissonance (Hart, Eagly, Lindberg, Albarracin, Brechan, &Merrill, 2009, p.556).
Empirical studies on selective exposure have been primarily conducted using the cognitive
dissonance framework (Jonas et. al, 2001, p.558). As previously mentioned, cognitive
dissonance is based on the idea that people want to avoid psychological discomfort. Individuals
want to avoid what they do not like and expose themselves to what they do like. Since
individuals prefer supportive information rather than opposing information, they can avoid postdecision discomfort and conflicts through selective exposure. In other words, selective exposure
actually enables individuals to actively defend their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors by seeking
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
4
information to support them (Hart et. al, 2009). Specifically, selective exposure refers to the
occurrence during information seeking when people are inclined to select information that is
biased towards their existing opinions, beliefs, or behaviors (Fischer, Jonas, Frey, & SchulzHardt, 2005, p. 469). Selective exposure is based on two primary forms of motivation, accuracy
motivation and defense motivation (Fischer, Kastenmuller, Greitemeyer, Fischer, Frey, &
Crelley, 2010). Accuracy motivation explains that one is motivated to be accurate in decisionmaking and defense motivation explains that individuals seek confirming information to support
and/or justify their choices. Often, however, these selections of information sources are made
because of personal interest rather than just a deliberate avoidance of opposing viewpoints
(Smith, 2008, p.47). And although selective exposure is common, it is not the only psychological
principle controlling information selection.
According to Jonas, Schulz-Hardt, Frey, & Thelen (2001), biased searching for
supportive information is a widespread phenomenon in decision-making. Studies also suggest
that selective exposure effects can occur in context of individual and group decision-making. In a
2009 study, Hart et. al found that “people are almost two times more likely to select information
that is congenial rather than uncongenial to their pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors”(p.
579). Simply stated, it is very common that individuals partake in supportive information
searching. Since “selective exposure is one of the most widely accepted principles in sociology
and social psychology” it is important to have an understanding of selective exposure (Sears &
Freedman, 1967, p. 194).
Since cognitive dissonance and selective exposure are both based on behavior and
attitude change, both have been studied and applied in a vast variety of fields such as
psychology, persuasion, and social psychology. The two can be found in contexts ranging from
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
5
self-serving situations to group-related decisions and even to mass communication. As a public
relations practitioner it is extremely beneficial to understand cognitive dissonance and selective
exposure. So for the purposes of this paper, the focus will now shift to these concepts through a
public relations viewpoint.
Cognitive dissonance and selective exposure suggest some of the influences in people’s
decisions to act, or not act, on a message (Treadwell & Treadwell, 2005). “Therefore,
understanding how people strive to feel validated versus to be correct is critical to explicating
how they select information about an issue when several alternatives are present”(Hart et. al,
2009, p. 555). As a public relations practitioner, this information will benefit us when we need to
draw attention to our client’s message and lessen the prominence of any alternative messages.
Cognitive dissonance also helps explain why public relations practitioners are sometimes
frustrated when the public does not seem to act on information in the way we think they should
(Smith, 2008). As public relations practitioners, we want to focus on crafting messages that will
resonate with our audiences. Public relations practitioners find it helpful to think about things
such as how products, services, and policies affect others and are concerned with getting people
to know or to do something (Aronoff, Baskin, & Lattimore, 1997, p.58). It is clear that
understanding these concepts will build effectiveness in public relations. Also as public relations
practitioners, it is essential to understand that the audiences are always in control of the
communication process. Smith (2008) argued, that the audiences will pick whether they want to
pay attention to a message or not. Their interests and abilities will determine if they understand
the message, and it will ultimately be their choice whether to act on it (p.2).
Cognitive dissonance and selective exposure are helpful in understanding people’s
responses to persuasive writing because any two perceptions held by an individual will be
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
6
irrelevant, consonant, or dissonant to each other (Treadwell &Treadwell, 2005). This is
important when applied to public relations because people will work to avoid your message as a
PR writer if your message conflicts with their current beliefs. Nonetheless, public relations
writers can use this information to their benefit. A PR writer has the ability to create a level of
dissonance that could lead readers to partake in selective exposure and seek out new information
about the client, which would then shift their attitudes and attention toward the client (Treadwell
& Treadwell, 2005, p. 14).
Treadwell & Treadwell (2005) explained the application of the theory through the
following example; consider sales appeals for hybrid cars, which can be higher priced than their
gas-powered equivalents. The sales aspect that focuses on fuel economy may not affect buyers
who want to spend their money as they please. However, if a buyer has an environmental
conscience, then an appeal based on reducing environmental pollution could create dissonance.
They may then reduce the dissonance by rationalizing that even though they paid more for a
vehicle than they should have, they are making a contribution to a cleaner environment, therefore
creating consonance (p.15). Although this specific example could be considered advertising
based, the same principles and ideas apply to public relations.
Since cognitive dissonance is a persuasive theory and public relations is sometimes
persuasive, cognitive dissonance can be applied to almost any public relations campaign. In any
case, my job would be to alter my communication accordingly to reduce any dissonance. More
specifically, cognitive dissonance and selective exposure can be applied in public relations
especially when dealing with fundraising, charitable giving behavior, and donor relations. For
example, when a crisis occurs, fundraising and donor relations need to be enforced.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
7
In the article “Examining the Role of Cognitive Dissonance in Crisis Fundraising”,
Waters took a closer look at an earthquake that occurred on December 26, 2004, in the Indian
Ocean which caused a tsunami that ripped through fourteen different countries. The catastrophic
act of nature affected Africa and Southeastern Asia (2008). The disaster prompted Waters to
further explore how cognitive dissonance affects crisis fundraising. Waters focused not only
Festinger’s theory of dissonance but also the concepts surrounding selective exposure. When
crises occur, individuals tend to experience some degree of psychological inconsistency and
when fundraising opportunities are presented, individuals are given the opportunity to restore
consistency.
Waters (2008) then proposed three hypotheses: first, “individuals who experience
stronger feelings of dissonance after learning about the December 2004 tsunami are more likely
to donate to charitable relief efforts” (p. 140). The second hypothesis was “that individuals who
donated to the tsunami’s charitable relief efforts are likely to experience a consonancerestoration effect by making a donation” (p. 140). The third and final hypothesis was “
individuals who experience a greater amount of dissonance as a result of learning about the
tsunami are more likely to reduce new information consumption in the wake of the event”
(p.140).
The study concluded that individuals experience strong feelings of dissonance when
learning of crises and that donating and fundraising can restore consonance. The study also
supported Festinger’s belief that individuals would avoid situations that would increase their
feelings of dissonance and through selective exposure increase consonance (Waters, 2008, p.142143).
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
8
Cognitive dissonance and selective exposure are important due to their background in
explaining human attitude and behavior. As previously mentioned, public relations practitioners
are interested in crafting resonating messages and finding out things such as how products,
services, and policies affect other’s opinions and actions. With a thorough understanding of
cognitive dissonance and selective exposure, both theories become beneficial in many aspects of
public relations. There are a myriad of other possible applications but the scope of this paper is
not to cover all of the potential aspects. This paper has provided a brief review of the major
explanations, well-known contributors, and just a few examples of how these theories can be
applied in public relations.
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
9
REFERENCES
Aronoff, C., Baskin, O., & Lattimore, D. (1997). Public relations: The profession and the
practice (4). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Standford, CA: Standard University Press
Fischer, P., Jonas, E., Frey, D., & Schulz-Hardt,S. (2005). Selective exposure to information:
The impact of information limits. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 469-492.
doi:10.1002/ejsp.264
Frey, D. (1982). Different levels of cognitive dissonance, information seeking, and information
avoidance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(6), 1175-1183.
doi:10.1037//0022-3514.43.6.1175
Hart, W., Eagly, A.H., Lindberg, M.J., Albarracin, D., Brechan, I., &Merrill, L. (2009) Feeling
validated versus being correct: Meta-analysis of selective exposure to information.
Psychological Bulletin, 135, (4), 555-588. doi: 10.1037/a0015701
Jonas, E., Schulz-Hardt, S., Frey, D., & Thelen, N. (2001). Confirmation bias in sequential
information search after preliminary decisions: An expansion of dissonance theoretical
research on selective exposure to information. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 80(4), 557-571. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.557
Sears, D.O., Freedman, J.L. (1967). Selective exposure to information: A critical review. Public
Opinion Quarterly, 31 (2), 194-213. doi:10.1086/267513
Smith, R. (2008). Becoming a public relations writer: A writing process workbook for the
profession (3). New York, NY: Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group
Treadmill, D., Treadmill, J.B. (2005). Public relations writing: Principles in practice. Retrieved
from
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IN PR
10
http://books.google.com/books?id=9x5VkLn1ip0C&pg=PA14&dq=Cognitive+dissonanc
e+in+Public+Relations&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cDU1UZXRN4Kg9QSR5YHIAw&ved=0CD
YQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cognitive%20dissonance%20in%20Public%20Relations&
f=false
Waters, R. D. (2009). Examining the role of cognitive dissonance in crisis fundraising. Public
Relations Review, 35(2), 139-143. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2008.11.001