The impact of the French Revolution and the
Napoleonic Wars (1789 to 1815)
Eshuys et al, The Modern World Emerges, 1991, Jacaranda, Singapore.
Introduction
Napoleon’s seizure of power in France in 1799 completed a process of change begun by the French
Revolution. All aspects of the old system of government by an absolute monarch were brought to an
end. When Napoleon marched his troops across Europe to create an empire for France, the process
of change was carried throughout the continent. He overthrew the kings of a number of countries
and replaced them with members of his own family; he ignored many of the old borders and created
new regions to be administered by his followers; he introduced central rule to many areas by
combining a number states.
These changes were enormous, but his troops brought even greater change. The French troops had
learnt new ideas and developed new beliefs during the French Revolution, which they carried with
them during the Napoleonic Wars. People in areas conquered and occupied by French troops
listened to French discussion about liberalism and nationalism, and many began to agree with these
ideas. As more and more people accepted these beliefs, liberalism and nationalism became forces of
change that were to reshape Europe and ultimately the world.
Forces of change
Liberalism
At the end of the eighteenth century, most countries of Europe were ruled by kings and nobles.
Members of the middle class, which was increasing in strength, wished to gain a share of political
power. In France, the middle class led a revolutionary movement to achieve this power. They were
drawn to the principles of liberalism, which included the following beliefs:
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A country should have a constitution that clearly stated how it was to be governed.
If a country had a monarchy, that monarch should not have absolute power.
A parliament elected by men who owned property should be established and have the main
responsibility for governing the country.
Parliament should concern itself with providing law and order so that individuals could be
free to work and improve their economic position.
Even when Napoleon took over absolute control of France, many French continued to believe in
liberalism, and French troops carried its teachings throughout Europe. Liberalism became a major
force of change, for it demanded an end to absolute monarchies, which still controlled most
Europeans countries.
Nationalism
Another force of change that came out of the French Revolution was nationalism. This was a new
belief that spread among people who usually shared a common language, religion, territory, culture
and tradition, and often economic and political ideas. Whereas in the past people had felt a loyalty
to:
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their tribe
their city-state
their feudal lords
their king,
now they began to feel a loyalty to their nation. However, nationalism meant more than just a
feeling of loyalty to the nation.
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nationalists came to believe that:
a nation’s citizens had much in common with one another and felt a deep sense of
fellowship among themselves
people from one nation were different from other people
citizens should feel loyalty to their nation
a nations should have a flag and an anthem to distinguish it from other nations
the needs of the citizen and those of the nation were the same
(p.95)
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the needs of one’s own nation came before those of all other nations.
When Austrian and Prussian troops attacked France during the French Revolution, French people
rose in a fervour of nationalism to defend their nation. For the first time in history the world saw a
nation at arms. Later, as the French troops marched across Europe the resentment they caused by
their invasion stirred feelings of nationalism in the countries they conquered.
All over Europe groups with common languages and customs began to accept the idea that they
could develop nations. Nationalism, a tremendously powerful force of change had begun its work.
http://go.grolier.com/atlas?id=mh00056
The defeat of Napoleon
Napoleon’s empire, however, was short-lived. All through the Napoleonic Wars, Great Britain,
Austria, Russia and Prussia continually struggled to defeat Napoleon and force his troops back inside
France’s borders. Great Britain, in particular, tried to prevent any single nation or group of nations
becoming too powerful on the European continent. Many of the leaders of Europe preferred the
existence of a number of strong nations that could keep a “balance of power”. In 1815 at Waterloo,
the Duke of Wellington led the British troops in a last mighty battle against Napoleon. Aided by the
Prussian troops, Wellington defeated Napoleon. Since 1792 Europe had been at war, and during this
time Napoleon had redrawn borders and replaced rulers. Somehow Europe had to be reorganised,
and in such a way that the peoples of Europe could enjoy a lasting peace and rebuild their disturbed
lives. To arrange a peace settlement, the nations and states of Europe sent their representatives to
the Austrian capital Vienna.
(p.96)
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
A congress is a meeting of diplomats gathered to discuss international affairs; so, when the nations
and states of Europe sent their representatives to Vienna, the gathering became known as the
Congress of Vienna.
The Congress was set two tasks:
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to redraw the borders of Europe, which had been changed by Napoleon, ensuring that there
was a balance of power
to bring lasting peace to Europe.
These tasks were to prove very difficult, as the representatives had very different beliefs. The
decisions of the congress were heavily influenced by the men representing the great powers: Lord
Castlereagh of Britain, Prince Metternich of Austria, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, King Frederick
William III of Prussian and Talleyrand of France.
Metternich became the dominant figure of the Congress. He came from a very wealthy Austrian
family and was a charming and skilful diplomat. He was very experienced in government, having
spent many years as chancellor of Austria, the most important position under the Austrian emperor.
Metternich loathed disorder, so he was strongly opposed to the events and ideas of the French
Revolution. He wished to see an ordered and stable Europe.
The kings of Europe were so appalled by the violence of the French Revolution and the beheading of
the French king and queen that Metternich found it easy to gain support for his ideas.
(p.97)
Country
Great Britain
Representative
Lord Castlereagh
Duke of Wellington
Austria
Emperor Francis I Prince
Clemens Metternich
Russia
Tsar Alexander I
Prussia
King Frederick William
III
France
Talleyrand
Basic attitudes
Although Britain had parliamentary government and
supported the ideas of liberalism, its leaders were
horrified by the violence of the French Revolution and
would not support revolutionary ideas.
Metternich wished to see Europe under the rule of
strong kings who could control progress. He opposed
revolution, liberalism and nationalism.
Tsar Alexander was the absolute monarch of Russia.
During the congress he was quite sympathetic to
liberalism but later he vigorously opposed it.
Prussia was a German state. King Frederick William
was its absolute monarch. Frederick William was
against revolution and wished to impose a harsh peace
settlement on France.
France was, of course, in disrepute, as Napoleon was
blamed for the war. However, Talleyrand was a clever
diplomat and represented France well.
Metternich’s ideas
This passage is adapted from Memoirs of Prince Metternich, and gives
an idea of his views:
The governments are frightened and confused by the demands of
the middle class. The middle class is trying to persuade kings that
their rights are confined to sitting on the throne, while the people
should govern. They attack all the past centuries have left us.
They deny the value of the past.
The first and greatest concern of a nation is the stability of law –
not change. Let the governments govern. It is certainly not wise to
change, especially now in the general confusion. Let the
monarchs also work more strongly together. Let them prove to the
world that this union of kings ensure the peace of Europe. The
rule of kings threatens only those who disturb public order.
The Congress, under Metternich’s influence, decided that the settlement of Europe should be based
on three principles:
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legitimacy – restoring the rightful monarchs whom Napoleon had removed
where possible redrawing the border as they were before Napoleon
containment of France – ensuring that France could not again expand beyond its borders.
Of course, the victorious powers also expected to receive some territory for their efforts during the
war.
(p.98)
The Settlement
The map below shows the settlement made at the Congress of Vienna.
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France. The French borders were very much the same as before the war. The French royal
family, the House of Bourbon, was given the right to rule France again, and the brother of
the executed king became King Louis XVIII of France.
Belgium and Holland were combined into one country to make a strong barrier to the north
of France. This, it was hoped, would stop any further French attempts to expand northward.
Denmark lost Norway, which was given to Sweden.
Sweden lost Finland, which was given to Russia.
The Italian peninsula was divided into seven areas, two of which, Venetia and Lombardy
went to Austria.
Germany remained divided into thirty-nine states.
Poland was divided up and most of its territory handed over to Russia.
Britain received overseas territory, including Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Cape of Good Hope
in South Africa.
Results of the settlement
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The settlement took no account of the wishes of the people. Considering that the Italians of
Venetia and Lombardy did not wish to be ruled by Austria, that the Belgians did not want to
be united with the Dutch , that Norway did not want to be ruled by Sweden, the that
German people were dissatisfied, it was obvious that the settlement would not last.
The settlement also tried to stop the new forces of change – nationalism and liberalism.
(p.99)
http://www.amitm.com/thecon/lesson2.html
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Throughout the areas where Austria ruled and had influence, Metternich censored the press
and used secret police and spies to suppress revolutionaries. He encouraged other leaders
to do the same. This suppression of nationalism and liberalism built up resentment that later
led to revolution.
Britain, which already had a parliament, was sympathetic towards nations trying to develop
a parliamentary system. Britain began to disapprove of Metternich’s attempts to prevent
change and gradually withdrew their support for him.
It was obvious at the Congress that the settlement would have to be policed. The great
powers – Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain – agreed to meet at later congresses to deal
with problems that arose and to use their power to keep the peace. The idea of nations
meeting together to solve issues peacefully was the foundation of international cooperation.
In spite of problems, the Congress of Vienna together with later congresses brought Europe
much –needed peace. When the Congress met in 1815, it included men representing state
that had been at war for over twenty years. An estimated million lives had been lost, trade
had been affected, towns, and countryside had been destroyed. From 1815 to 1848, though
there were some conflicts, the congress system gave Europe a period of calm in which to
recover.
New nations emerge
Although the Congress provided Europe with a long period of relative peace, it could not last. The
nineteenth century saw great changes in Europe, including the destruction of old empires and the
formation of new nations.
Belgium becomes a nation
When the peacemakers at Vienna decided to form a new strong nation on France’s northern
borders, they did so against the wishes of the people of the area. The Dutch people were mainly
Protestants and spoke Dutch, whereas the Belgian people were mainly Catholics, who spoke either
French or Flemish.
Two peoples, different in religion, race, language and customs, were combined in one country.
Because of their differences, and because the Dutch were the most powerful group, the Belgians
desired a nation of their own. In 1830 the Belgians rebelled against Dutch control, demanding:
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a nation for themselves
a constitutional monarchy with a political system similar to that of Great Britain.
By themselves the Belgians had no chance of success, especially if Austria supported the Dutch.
Great Britain, however, was very sympathetic to the Belgian cause; also, Britain was worried that
France would use the rebellion as an excuse to take over the French-speaking areas of Belgium. The
British government decided to intervene. In 1831, under British pressure, the Dutch and the other
great powers of Europe were forced to recognize the Belgian nation under the rule of its own king,
Leopold I. A further treaty in 1839 declared Belgium a neutral state, allied to no nation and
guaranteed freedom from interference from other nations. Great Britain felt particularly responsible
for the protection of Belgium. Seventy-five years later, the invasion of Belgium became a major
factor in Britain’s decision to enter World War I in 1914.
(p.100)