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Premise
The High Renaissance, Mannerism and Early Baroques occur during 16th cnetuy Italy. The Papacy was a political force and a leading patron of the
arts.. The popes commissioned the prominent architects, painters and sculptors for works to glorify the Vatican and the Holy City.
"After the upheavel in FLorence, artists flocked to Rome to work for the popes, who strove to make the city the spiritual and artistic center of
Europe. During this turbulent age, marked by foreign invasion, militaristic expansion under Pope Julius II, and the Reformation, artists created the
magnificent, refined, heroic style of the High Renaissane. Balance, serentity, perfection and beauty of forms characterize the High Renaissance."
Artists begin to assume a god-like status and "mingled with the great minds of the age."
"Human images took on an impressive grandeur, perfection, and beauty that was unparalleled in Western art. Italy soon came in conflict with
Francis I of France and Emperor Charles who sacked ROme in 1527. The Reformation (1517), ignited by Martin Luther, rapidly spread and by mid
century one fourth of the population in Europe was Protestant. Political and religious upheavels, economic decline, and social crises in Rome and
FLorence contributed to the complex, distortred forms of Mannerism, 1520-90. By the end of the century, Venetian artists creaed a colorful,
dynamic, Early Baroque style that influenced the 17th century."
Moving into the era known as the High Renaissance- between 1490 and 1530- we meet Leonardo da Vinci, the artist some say was the prototype of
the multi-talented “renaissance man.”.
Overview
" It was during the sixteenth century that the perception of the artist as genius rather than artisan developed. Though the High Renaissance lasted
only from 1495 to 1520, many well-known personalities, including Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, and El Greco, lived
during this time. The concept of the Renaissance man emerged, representing an individual with diverse interests who has proven expertise and
mastery in different areas.Florence, which up to this point had been the artistic center of the Renaissance, was in political upheaval; as a result,
Venice, Rome, and Milan began to share artistic leadership. There was continued growth in the monumentality of the arts, including architecture,
and the devel-oping perception of the arts as intellectual endeavor. The various artistic centers began to represent different schools of thought,
with Rome and Florence being the centers of the Mannerist style. During the period between the late fifteenth century and the mid-sixteenth
century, Rome became the center of political and artistic power owing to the efforts of a succession of powerful popes. The technical aspects of the
arts were not the only issue of attention; the creative dimensions of artistic work were valued as well."
Part --: Unit Exam Essay Questions
(from previous Art 260-261 tests)
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Masaccio owed much to the work of Giotto. What had he learned from the older master and what innovations did he make?
59. What made perspective so important to Renaissance artists? Discuss at least three examples.
60. Why were Renaissance architects so fascinated with the central plan‑church design? What are its advantages and its disadvantages?
Cite at least two examples of buildings that used this type of design.
61. Discuss the extent to which Alberti realized the principles of his theoretical writings on architecture in specific buildings he designed.
SLIDE QUESTIONS.
62. When were these two equestrian portraits done? In what ways do they resemble each other and how do they differ?
63. How does the renovation done on this church by Alberti demonstrate his ideas about classical form and harmonic relationships
between parts?
64. What major change had taken place in the representation of pictorial space between the time Ghiberti created the panel of the
Sacrifice of Isaac and his completion of the Gates of Paradise? How well did he utilize the new ideas?
(from AAT4)
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Using the examples in this chapter, discuss the meanings and functions of the circular plan in Renaissance buildings.
Describe the development of New Saint Peter's. Discuss the contributions of the various architects who worked on it.
What are the differences between Giotto's and Michelangelo's Last Judgment? To what do you attribute the differences?
How does High Renaissance Venetian painting compare with that of Rome?
How does School of Athens exemplify the High Renaissance?
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Compare Raphael's Galatea with his Madonna of the Meadow. What does this comparison suggest about his range of subject matter?
Learning Goals (AAT4)
After reading Chapter 14, you should be able to do the following:
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Identify the works and define the terms featured in the chapter
Discuss papal patronage
Analyze the stages involved in the rebuilding of Saint Peter's
Discuss the meaning and significance of Leonardo's Vitruvian Man
Describe the program of the Sistine ceiling frescoes
Discuss issues involved in restoration
Trace the development of Michelangelo's sculptural style
Compare Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo with the Venetian painters
Describe the program of Raphael's Stanza della Segnatura frescoes
Trace the development of the High Renaissance in Venice
Argue one side of the dispute between the relative merits of painting and sculpture
Chapter Outline (AAT4)
THE HIGH RENAISSANCE IN ITALY, c. 1500–c. 1550
The ideal of the circle: Vitruvian Man
Bramante: the Tempietto
Leonardo: Mona Lisa; Last Supper
Papal patronage
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Julius II (pope 1503–1513)
New Saint Peter's; Sistine Ceiling (Michelangelo)
Stanza della Segnatura (Raphael)
Leo X (pope 1513–1521)
Pope Paul III: Michelangelo's Last Judgment
Michelangelo in Florence: The Laurentian Library
The myth of Venice
Venetian painters: the Bellini; Giorgione; Titian
Controversy: painting versus sculpture; color versus drawing
Charles V invades Italy (1527)
Summary and Study Guide
Define or identify the following terms:
AAT4 Key Terms
balustrade
a series of balusters, or upright pillars, supporting a rail (as along the edge of a balcony or bridge).
broken pediment
a pediment in which the cornice is discontinuous or interrupted by another element.
buttress
an external architectural support that counteracts the lateral thrust of an arch or wall.
cella
the main inner room of a temple, often containing the cult image of the deity.
chiaroscuro
the subtle gradation of light and shadow used to create the effect of three-dimensionality.
Contrapposto
a stance of the human body in which one leg bears the weight, while the other is relaxed, creating an asymmetry in
the hip-shoulder axis.
entablature
the portion of a Classical architectural Order above the capital of a column.
glaze
(a) in oil painting, a layer of translucent paint or varnish, sometimes applied over another color or ground, so that
light passing through it is reflected back by the lower surface and modified by the glaze; (b) in pottery, a material
applied in a thin layer that, when fired, fuses with the surface to produce a glossy, nonporous effect.
ignudi
nude figures (in Italian).
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martyrium
a church or other structure built over the tomb or relics of a martyr.
painterly
in painting, using the quality of color and texture, rather than line, to define form.
pastel
a crayon made of ground pigments and a gum binder, used as a drawing medium.
peristyle
a colonnade surrounding a structure; in Roman houses, the courtyard surrounded by columns.
Pietà
an image of the Virgin Mary holding and mourning over the dead Christ.
sculptured wall motif
the conception of a building as a massive block of stone with openings and spaces carved out of it.
sfumato
the definition of form by delicate gradations of light and shadow.
spandrel
the triangular area between (a) the side of an arch and the right angle that encloses it or (b) two adjacent arches.
UNIT 15 STUDY GUIDE
Italian Art 1400-1500
(AP Art History)
Book
Chapter 21—Humanism and the Allure of Antiquity: 15th Century-Italian Art, Pages 573-612
Helpful Text Boxes—
Depicting Objects in Space: Perspective Systems in the Early Renaissance, p. 578
Imitation and Emulation: Artistic Values in the Renaissance, p. 585
Honoring God and Family: Family Chapel Endowments , p. 589
Terms
be able to identify these by sight, explain these in relation to art, and know an example of each in relation to a work of art
Republic of Florence
contrapposto
schiacciato
single or one-point perspective (linear perspective)
equestrian monument
International Style
chiaroscuro
atmospheric perspective
double shell dome
central plan
Medici
humanism
printmaking
engraving
sacra conversazione (sacred conversation)
foreshortening
Treatise on Architecture by Alberti (completed in 1452, first published in 1485)
Vitruvius (late 1st century B.C. Roman architect)
Sistine Chapel
oil paint
Flemish painting
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492)
disegno (“drawing with line”)
Neoplatonism
sfumato (“smokiness”)
“triangle composition”
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Leonardo’s inventions
Chronology
Art Works
know these works by sight, title, date, medium, scale, and location (original location also if moved) and be able to explain and analyze these in
relation to any concept, term, element, or principle
Summary and Study Guide
Part --: Unit Exam Essay Questions
(from previous Art 260-261 tests)
(from AAT4)
Learning Goals (AAT4)
Chapter Outline (AAT4)
Summary and Study Guide
Define or identify the following terms:
AAT4 Key Terms
Chronology
Art Works
know these works by sight, title, date, medium, scale, and location (original location also if moved) and be able to explain and analyze these in
relation to any concept, term, element, or principle
Summary and Study Guide
Part --: Unit Exam Essay Questions
(from previous Art 260-261 tests)
(from AAT4)
1.
2.
3.
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5.
6.
7.
Discuss the Classical revival in Italy in the 14th century, and illustrate its influence on the arts.
Compare and contrast the styles of Cimabue's Madonna Enthroned with Giotto's Madonna Enthroned. What does each illustrate about
the artists and their times?
Describe a working day in the life of a fourteenth-century Italian fresco painter
Explain why Giotto's frescoes are more dramatic than Romanesque and Gothic pictorial imagery. Give examples from the text.
Compare the style of Duccio's Maestà with that of the Arena Chapel frescoes. Include a discussion of the patrons and the relationship of
the works to their contexts.
Compare the style of Giotto with that of International Gothic. Include a discussion of patronage and influence.
Discuss the changes in art styles in fourteenth-century Italy after 1348. Propose some possible reasons for the change.
Learning Goals (AAT4)
Chapter Outline (AAT4)
Summary and Study Guide
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Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) epitomizes the concept of the Renaissance man. Sculptor, painter, and architect, his range of interests and
achievements spanned and exceeded the dimensions of art, extend¬ing into science, engineering, anatomy, mathematics, and music.
From age fifteen to twenty-five, Leonardo served as an apprentice to the painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. In 1482, he
moved to Milan. There he served as the official artist of the duke of Milan until 1499, when he returned to Florence. During his latter years,
Leonardo was court painter to Louis XII, king of France, and to his successor, Francis I. Though many of his notebooks and drawings have survived,
only a dozen paintings can be absolutely attributed to him; of his sculpture, none are known to exist today, yet his influence was monumental.
The Adoration of the Magi
One of Leonardo's early commissions, an altarpiece for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto, is an unfinished work entitled The Adoration of the
Magi (1481-1482). His preliminary sketches for the painting reflect the process he went through to achieve his final image. Leonardo's sense of
precise order and his use of perspective are evident in the composition of the work, which depicts over sixty individuals whose facial expressions
and gestures serve as the focus of attention for the viewer. His figures are not defined by line but rather by light and shadow (chiaroscuro).
Whereas other painters had applied shadow to their figures in order to model them and create a sense of mass, Leonardo's figures appear to
emerge from the darkness, challenging traditional conceptions of light and dark and how shape is defined.
The Virgin of the Rocks
In 1485, while in Milan, Leonardo painted The Virgin of the Rocks, utilizing a strong triangular orientation (similar to that seen in Francesca's The
Resurrection), as well as chiaroscuro to model the figures. Light and shadow are used to both reveal and conceal the figures, who form a group,
unified by their gestures toward one another. Hazy and dreamlike, the atmosphere of the painting contributes to the
work's being perceived as a poetic image rather than as a real-world representation.
The Last Supper
When Leonardo was commissioned by the friars of the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan to do a painting in their refectory, the subject to
be depicted was a traditional one: the Last Supper. This theme had been painted many times and, typically, was composed with the Apostles lined
up next to Christ on one side of a table and Judas standing on the opposite side. Leonardo's approach to the composition, as seen in his version of
The Last Supper (c. 1495-1498), would be considered the first great work of the High Renaissance. His figures are expressive, the Apostles
appearing startled at Christ's declaration that one of them would betray him. Christ, in the center, is framed by a window with an arch that acts as
a halo, and the reaction of the Apostles to his words is linked to the way they are posed in groups of three. Leonardo's space is created out of a
mathematical precision that makes the room seem to be impossibly perfect in its dimensions. Though close scrutiny might lead the viewer to the
conclusion that the scale of the figures does not match that of the room, the illusion is necessary to create a powerful image, one that portrays
tragedy. Drama is added to the scene in the artist's use of atmosphere and chiaroscuro and through the emotions he has imbedded in the facial
features and gestures of the figures.
What is unfortunate about the work is its lack of physical durability. In order to avoid the restrictions of the fresco technique, which required that
the artist work quickly in applying paint to still-wet plaster that would adhere it to the wall surface, Leonardo experimented with a
allow him to obtain the subtleties
of light and shadow he sought but would also allow him to work on the entire composition at the same time on a dry wall. Unfortunately, his
pigment did not take well to the wall, and even during Leonardo's
lifetime there were signs of deterioration. Restoration of The Last Supper has been continuous; as early as the eighteenth century it had
been repainted twice.
Mona Lisa
Leonardo was also responsible for what has probably become the world's best-known portrait: Mona Lisa (c. 1503--1505). The portrait is of La
Gioconda, the wife of Zanobi del Gioconda, a banker in Florence. As in Leonardo's earlier works, his use of sfumato is instrumental in creating a
hazy atmosphere. The subtle modeling of the figure's fea¬tures, which obscures the expression on her face, contributes to what has been referred
to as her enigmatic smile.
“Michelangelo
“Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), though a master of painting and architecture, saw himself foremost as a sculptor. At age thirteen he was
apprenticed to the painter Domenic Ghirlandaio, and at fourteen he entered the sculpture studio of Lorenzo de' Medici, where he studied with
Bertoldo. By the time he was seventeen, he felt ready to set out on his own. His manner was one of independence of thought. He dispensed with
the mathematical proportions established by others for portraying idealized beauty, trusting instead his own senses, his own eye.”
“David”
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“By the time Michelangelo was twenty-five, his reputation as a sculptor was already such that he received a commission in Rome. The sculpture
was of the biblical character David (1501--15(4), and its impact upon the viewer is likely no less today than it was more than four centuries ago. The
figure, eighteen feet tall, does not represent David after his battle with Goliath, as do earlier versions, but shows him before the confrontation.
David appears to stand waiting, preparing himself while looking to the left. His is not a figure at rest, but one with muscles tense, readying himself
for action. The expression on his face is one of concentration and determination, contributing to the overall feeling of tension and energy that the
sculpture conveys.”
“Though there is reference to earlier Classical sculpture in David, Michelangelo's figure reflects the artist's knowledge of human anatomy (he
dissected cadavers) and his reliance upon his own sense of propor¬tion in the way in which he emphasizes the figure's face, hands, and feet. His
figure of David, though carved of marble, gives the impression of having a framework of muscle and bone covered with flesh. “
“Moses”
“Michelangelo's Moses (c. 1513-1515), originally intended as one of a number of sculptures for the tomb of Pope Julius II, has many of the same
qualities as David. Though sitting, Moses, too, turns his head to the left, but with an angry expression beginning to form on his face. A sense of
restraint is implied, though the contraction of the muscles of the arms and the position of the legs lead one to believe that he is about to rise. “
“The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican”
“Between 1508 and 1512 Michelangelo worked on what was to be one of his greatest achievements: the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the
Vatican. Though he had already begun working on sculptures for the tomb of Pope Julius II, the pope decided that he wanted Michelangelo to stop
what he was doing and decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in fresco. This challenge would entail applying paint to still-damp plaster, which
allowed no mistakes, while lying on his back on a scaffolding nearly seventy feet above the floor. Only a small area could be worked on at any given
time because the conditions for fresco painting were very restrictive. Given the dimensions of the ceiling, 128 feet by 44 feet, it was quite a task,
compositionally as well as techni¬cally. Michelangelo's solution was then and remains today a master¬piece. He organized the space into a
framework of painted triangles, squares, and rectangles filled with the portrayal of numerous biblical stories including the Creation, Adam and Eve,
the Fall of Man, and his Redemption. Like his sculptures, Michelangelo's painted figures, over 300 in all, contain the energy and physical substance
that typify his style. “
“Michelangelo as Architect”
“Following the death of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo continued to serve the succeeding popes, who relied upon the sculptor's talents as an
architect. Much of his work was done in San Lorenzo, including the Laurentian Library (begun in 1524), which was to house the collection of the
Medici. As in his depiction of the human form, Michelangelo ignored the traditional standards and proportions of architecture, and like his figures,
the interior of the building has a sense of energy and tension.”
“Among his architectural accomplishments was the reorganization of the Capitoline Hill in Rome in 1537. Given that the Palazzo dei Conservatori,
built a century before, and the Medieval Palazzo dei Senatori were two structures that Michelangelo would have to incor¬porate into his design, he
applied to the problem his theorem of units revolving symmetrically around a central axis and proposed, among other modifications, the
construction of a new structure-the Museo Capitolino-that would give a trapezoidal orientation to the piazza. After Michelangelo completed his
design for the Capitoline Hill, Pope Paul III requested that he direct the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral (1546-1564). Earlier plans for the
cathedral drawn up by the architect Donato d'Agnolo Bramante (1444-1514) called for a series of inter¬locking crosses. Michelangelo adjusted the
plan to form a cross in a square with a dome above, so as to reduce the fragmentation of the structure. His design for both the interior and the
exterior of the church reflected his ongoing desire to achieve a sense of balance and harmony in his work.”
“The Last judgment”
“Twenty years after completing the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo returned to the Vatican to paint The Last Judgment (1534-1541) on
the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel. Here, instead of portraying Christ as the redeemer, as he had earlier on the ceiling, Michelangelo chose to
depict him as a judge. His portrayals of the dead rising and the damned in hell are powerful and graphic.”
“Raphael”
“Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520), though influenced by and a contem¬porary of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, developed his own manner of
painting that also reflected the thought of the High Renais¬sance. At age seventeen, Raphael was apprenticed to the Umbrian painter Pietro
Vannucci Perugino (1446-1523), who had studied in the studio of Verrocchio at the same time as Leonardo da Vinci. While in Florence in the early
1500s, Raphael had access to the work of both da Vinci and Michelangelo, and his ability to learn from other masters became evident in his work,”
“Madonna del Cardellino”
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“The composition of Raphael's Madonna del Cardellino (1505¬1506), for example, is based upon the triangular organization of Leonardo's Virgin of
the Rocks (1485), and he used chiaroscuro to subtly define the figures. From Perugino, he borrowed the style of the back¬ground, and he used
highlights to accent the figures.”
“The School of Athens”
“In 1509, Raphael received a commission from Pope Julius II to decorate, in fresco, three of the pope's private rooms at the Vatican. The most
famous of these is found in the Stanza della Segnatura, and consists of four frescoes, one on each wall, that depict the areas of knowledge upon
which the power of the pope rested: philosophy, poetry, law, and theology. One of the frescoes, The School of Athens (1510-1511), has come to
symbolize the High Renaissance in terms of its artistic achieve¬ment and thought. Its physical achievements are represented by the architecture
depicted, which is probably based upon Donato d'Agnolo Bramante's design for St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome.”
“At the center of the composition stand Aristotle and Plato, framed by arches. The figure of Aristotle points downward; to his right stand
individuals who were renowned for their investigation of the physical world as the means for finding truth. Plato, meanwhile, arm raised, points
upward; to his left stand philosophers who looked for answers and explanations in the realm of ideas. The work also includes the personas of such
individuals as Euclid, Pythagoras, and Heraclitus. (The latter form, it is said, was based upon the features of Michelangelo himself; certainly the
figure's pose is based upon the work found in the Sistine Chapel.) There is a distinct sense of visual balance and harmony to the composition in the
way the architectural elements and the in¬dividuals are presented. However, the grouping of the figures also represents the intellectual differences
between the different schools of thought. Though recognizing and honoring human achievements, of humankind, Raphael also subtly
acknowledges that humankind lives with limitations as well.”
“Titian”
“Better known as Titian, Tiziano Vecelli (1490-1576) was probably the most famous of the Venetian painters during the High Renaissance. It was
during his era that the shift from painting on wood to painting on canvas occurred, and it is Titian who is frequently credited with estab¬lishing the
acceptability of using oil paint on canvas.”
“Madonna with Members of the Pesaro Family”
“Titian's reputation was established with his Madonna with Mem¬bers of the Pesaro Family (1519-1526) for the Church of San Maria dei Frari, in
Venice. Though the interactions of monumental architecture and figures were traditional to High Renaissance art, Titian's composi¬tional
organization of these elements was unique. In this painting, instead of composing the image symmetrically with a horizontal orien¬tation, he
arranged the figures in a manner that creates a strong diagonal thrust to the work, so that the viewer is looking into the picture from an angle
rather than frontally, and attention is directed to the Madonna. A strong sense of movement is achieved through his use of rich color, light and
shadow, and the gestures of his characters.”
“Titian as Portrait Painter”
“Titian was also a portrait painter, and many of his portraits exist today. Among them is the Man with the Glove (c. 1520). Attention is divided
between the subject's hands and face, and the slightly turned head is very expressive and meditative, reflecting the attitude of this period. As the
court painter and close friend of Emperor Charles V, Titian painted many portraits of Charles, including Charles V at Muhlberg (1548). Here, Titian
utilizes visual subtleties to present the emperor as heroic and honorable. The beautiful armor and costume and the strutting steed contribute to
the overall effect.”
“The Venus of Urbino”
“In 1538 Titian painted the Venus of Urbino for the duke of Urbino. This painting, of a nude woman lying upon a bed, would become the model for
the reclining nude for many years to come.”
Define or identify the following terms:
AAT4 Key Terms
Chronology
Art Works
know these works by sight, title, date, medium, scale, and location (original location also if moved) and be able to explain and analyze these in
relation to any concept, term, element, or principle
Summary and Study Guide
PRECURSORS OF THE RENAISSANCE
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I.
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INTRODUCTION
When you hear the word “RENAISSANCE” what comes to mind?
Italy as a nation-state does NOT exist Instead the area was divided into a number of AUTONOMOUS (self-governing) regions. By 1350,
northern Italy was a highly urban region. Three cities (Genoa, Venice, Florence) had populations of about 100,000 people, a huge cities
for the time. These were COSMOPOLITAN (worldly, sophisticated, urbane) centers of trade and commerce. Fertile places for new ideas.
3. Rise of Wealthy Merchant Families: As trade grew, a new class of merchants and bankers rapidly arose and had a powerful
impact upon the Renaissance providing, For the first time in centuries, new patrons of the arts. The Church is still very
important
4. Important Point - The Renaissance was noticed in Italy first. However, major artistic developments began to occur
simultaneously in Northern Europe. We will study the Northern Renaissance after our investigation of the Italian Renaissance.
C.
Humanism
1.
Humanism means the rediscovery of the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome
2. Humanists were scholars, writers, and artists who rediscovered and then studied the cultural heritage of Greece and
Rome.
D.
“Man is the Measure of all Things”
1.
This rediscovery of the Greco-Roman heritage sparked a renewed interest in HUMANS including
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E.
F.
Natural world
1.
Curiosity about the natural world
2.
Detailed observation of nature
3.
Accurate representation of nature – will lead to important breakthroughs in art
Individualism
1.
What is the reward for heroic achievement?
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Fame
Wealth
2.
Artists have names from now on
3.
Portraits
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G.
Human form
Human emotions and personalities
Human potential
Human achievements – especially heroic deeds
Of patrons
Of themselves – self-portraits
Autobiographies
A Historically Self-Conscious Age
1.
2.
3.
Classical Civilization
Middle Ages sometimes called the “Dark Ages”
The Renaissance or “rebirth”
High Renaissance (Late 1400s – early 1500s)
•
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Leonardo da Vinci
Michelangelo
Raphael
Titian
Art History 361
Summary of the Renaissance
The word "Renaissance" comes from the French and means rebirth, the rebirth of ancient learning. In Italian, the word is Rinascenza.
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The Italian Renaissance period is usually divided into Early Renaissance (1420-1500) and High Renaissance (1500-20).
Major Time Periods in Renaissance Art:
16th Century
Christianity was added to Platonic ideal: Neo-platonism.
Michelangelo in the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and Raphael in the Vatican Stanze are
representative of this movement at the beginning of the 16th century; they brought the
Renaissance to the highest achievement in painting in Rome.
But the attempt to reconcile paganism and Christianity foundered.
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The Reformation intervened and the works of the Mannerists show what resulted
in painting.
The Counter-Reformation ushered in the new period, the Baroque.
Ideas and Concepts: Humanism, Neoplatonism, and Aristotelianism
The art of a period is a reflection of the psychological, religious, and political forces at work
during that period.
Humanism
Humanism was the basic concept of the Italian Renaissance. It is the term used to
define that philosophical movement in Italy at the end of the 14th century and during the
15th and 16th centuries which asserted the right of the individual to the use of his own
reason and belief, and stressed the importance and potential of man as an individual.
This concept can be identified with a belief in the power of learning and science to
produce "the complete man". This rational and scientific conception of the world is the basis
of our modern civilization. Modern Humanism originated in the Renaissance when scholars,
writers, poets, artists, philosophers and scientists sought regeneration in the freer
intellectual spirit of Classical times.
The Humanists saw no conflict between the New Learning--the newly rediscovered
wisdom of the ancient world--and the authority of the Church. They felt that the study of the
ancient great writers of Greece and Rome was a tool for the understanding of true Christian
doctrine, and that Platonic philosophy (the belief in the ideal of physical beauty as the
manifestation of God, the One Supreme Being) could only illuminate, never undermine,
theology.
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Ideas and Concepts:
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Humanism
Neoplatonism
Aristotelianism
Neo-Platonism
Neo-Platonism in the Renaissance was the philosophy based on the teachings and doctrines
of a group of thinkers of the early Christian era who endeavored to reconcile the teachings
of Plato with
Christian concepts.
The Neo-Platonists, being at the same time both lovers of the pagan past with its
Platonic ideals of physical beauty, and being Christians, wanted to fuse this pagan idealism
with Christian doctrine. The art and taste during the Renaissance for complicated
mythological fantasies intermingled with allegories and symbolisms tried to achieve this
fusion of the Platonic idealism with Christian doctrine. The allegorical value of the art lies in
this union of the Classical antique and the Christian.
The Neo-Platonists conceived of the Christian religion as an eternal doctrine existing
even before the advent of historical Christianity. The main object of the Neo-Platonic
Academy in Florence in the 15th century was the reconciliation of the spirit of antiquity with
that of Christianity.
The meaning of God to the Neo-Platonists was thus:
God was Beauty and the source of Beauty.
God's image is Man.
Therefore, the ideally beautiful Man is the closest approximation of
God on this earth.
Michelangelo was the greatest Neo-Platonic artist who believed that the spirit of Classical
art inspired and guided the formation of the concetto (concept) of beauty in the mind.
Aristotelianism

In the Renaissance, another school of classical learning was coterminous and was
finally reconciled with Neo-Platonism, called

Aristotelianism. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72) first formulated this concept of art
based on the writings of Aristotle via Vitruvius (early 1st century A.D. classical
author). It is the Aristotelian conception of the visible world as ultimate reality.

Alberti's concept of beauty in a work of art is the harmony between all the parts so
that nothing can be added to it or taken from it without impairing the whole. The
work of art is synthesized by adding together the most beautiful observable
examples of the component parts. Leonardo da Vinci, always the scientist, even
when a painter, was the chief exponent of the Aristotelian concept.
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The Classical in the Renaissance
In the broadest artistic sense, Classical art is that art which is based on the study of classical
models, and art which emphasizes qualities considered to be characteristically Greek and
Roman in style and spirit:






Reason
Objectivity
Discipline
Restraint
Order
Balance
Discipline
Restraint
These characteristics can be summed up in one term: Harmony.
The essential conditions that encourage Classical art are:



Pride in the past
Peace in the present
Confidence in the future
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The Renaissance's Five Great Achievements
There are five fundamental elements in the great achievements of the Italian Renaissance in
the world of Art:





Naturalism
Organization of space
Invention of parallel perspective by Filippo Brunelleschi: the scientific use of a
perspective based on lines that come together at a single vanishing point on the
horizon
The use of classical motifs
The new dignity of the individual
Characteristics of Renaissance Painting


Harmonious proportions among all elements of a painting
Reintroduction of chiaroscuro: the gradations of light and dark within a picture,
especially one in which the forms are largely determined, not by sharp outlines but
by the meeting of lighter and darker areas The perfection of geometric or parallel
perspective
Characteristics of Renaissance Sculpture




The reintroduction of contrapposto: the pose of the human form in which the
head and shoulders face in a different direction from the hips and legs -- a spiral
twist
The systematic study of anatomy and of the
organic functions of the body
Free-standing monumental statues
Characteristics of Renaissance Architecture

1.
A harmony of all parts with symmetry and order of geometric proportions and
designs using Classical architectural elements.
Leonardo and the Changing Position of Artists
Before considering sixteenth century art I would like to reflect on the changing position of the artist. Remember that in Medieval times artists had
the same social status as a saddle maker or a carpenter. Craftsmen were essentially anonymous; few Medieval artists signed their works, although
there were occasional exceptions. During the fifteenth century, however, artists came to share a growing sense of individualism. The portrait
shown in Figure 18 9 is generally considered to be a self portrait by Jan Van Eyck. As such, it is one of the very first such assertions of self on the
part of a Renaissance artist. Van Eyck had been given great honors by the Duke of Burgundy; he was appointed Valet de Chambre in the Duke's
household, a significant honor seldom granted an artist, even in later times, and he was sent by the Duke to Portugal on state business. No
medieval craftsman would have been given such honors or responsibilities. Van Eyck reflects his new importance in the self portrait that illustrates
his interest in himself as a person.
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In Italy the position of artists was aided by the link of theory with production, thus raising the status of painting and sculpture from that of the
manual arts to the liberal arts. This is an interesting discussion for those of us in the twentieth century who think about college curriculum and
liberal arts. Liberal arts study, as distinguished from training, is concerned with learning the principles and theory behind a discipline rather than
concentrating on the practice of it. We generally make a distinction between professional education and liberal education, but often these are
mixed up in consideration of the education appropriate for an artist. Medieval society had recognized music as a liberal art but painting and
sculpture as manual arts. That distinction was based on the concern for theory and mathematical structure in music; music has a theoretical basis
while the visual arts did not. However, in the fifteenth century the visual arts, particularly painting, became much more involved with the theory.
Alberti was one of the great theoreticians of the fifteenth century. We have already talked about his buildings (Figure 16 38) and about his
formulation of the theory of perspective. Alberti received a Humanist education at the University of Bologne, certainly a rarity for an artist. He was
a precocious scholar and served as secretary to the Pope. He wrote poetry, plays, moral and philosophical essays, as well as treatises for which he is
famous (On Painting, in which he formulated the theory of scientific perspective; On Sculpture, in which he formulated the ideal proportions for
the human figure, based on the writings of the ancients; and his Ten Books on Architecture, in which he discussed the relationship of mathematical
ratios used in building to music and to the structure of the universe which was designed on a system of related small numbers). Alberti thus
brought the visual arts into the realm of the liberal arts.
Visual arts were not firmly ensconced in this realm of liberal arts until the sixteenth century, however. In the meantime there was a bit of
squabbling between the painters and the sculptors, each claiming to be more closely involved in the intellectual activity typical of the liberal arts.
The painters contended that they solved intellectual problems while sculptors were involved in ignoble manual labor. Sculptors got covered with
sweat and dust like bakers, while painters sat well dressed before their beautiful paintings. While he works the painter can listen to music or
readings that would be drowned out in the uproar of hammering in a sculptor's studio. Leonardo said that painting could give a more complete
description of nature than sculpture, but the sculptors retorted that they actually created objects in three dimensions, while painting merely gives
the illusion of the third dimension. Leonardo countered by saying that this illusion was created by intellectual means and was thus a higher
accomplishment.
The debate no longer seems particularly meaningful when one considers the work of the two giants, Michelangelo (Figure 17 24) and Leonardo da
Vinci (Figure 17 3). Both were intensely involved not only in the creation of art objects but also in the theoretical aspects of art. They are generally
considered to represent the height to which an individual artist might aspire. I imagine that many of you have seen the movie based on the book by
Irving Stone on the life of Michelangelo, The Agony and the Ecstasy, and I suspect that as a result you visualize Michelangelo in the guise of
Charlton Heston. Heston is 6'4"; Michelangelo was 5'4". However, through his work Michelangelo projected a powerful personality that
outstripped his 5'4" frame. The projection of Michelangelo from that of a medieval artisan is therefore very different. The artist has come a long
way in just a hundred years, and as such has shared the Renaissance glorification of the individual.
The art of Leonardo da Vinci synthesized many of the tendencies of fifteenth century art and made the first monumental statement of the High
Renaissance. He brought together the investigation of empirical reality and the mathematical ordering of space of the fifteenth century with the
sense of monumentality and balance. He developed a softened modeling that is identified by the more specific term of "sfumato,n which means a
smoke like haziness that subtly softens the outlines of the figures and can be seen in his Madonna of the Rocks (Figure 17 1). Other
sixteenthcentury artists, Andrea del Sarto, for example (Figure 17 36), adopted Leonardo's sfumato, as is apparent when one compares it to Piero
delta Francesca's Resurrection (Figure 16 35). Del Sarto's figures are surrounded by a warm hazy atmosphere, while the contours of Piero's figures
are sharpened by the crisp lighting. Leonardo also developed the triangular composition of many fifteenth century Italian artists into a three
dimensional pyramid. Compare Piero's Resurrection with Leonardo's Madonna of the Rocks (Figure 17 1). The influence of Leonardo's three
dimensional pyramid is apparent in the del Sarto as well.
The same softness can be seen in Leonardo's Virgin and Child with St. Anne (Figure 17 2). Here again one sees the three dimensional pyramid
created from figures, but the figures have become more massive than those of the Virgin of the Rocks. High Renaissance figures generally were
fuller and more ample than those of the fifteenth century and we can see Leonardo signaling the new mode. We see both the new modes most
clearly in his Mona Lisa (Figure 17¬4). Leonardo's sfumato tends to mute the intensity of the local colors and the sharpness of the detail. Compare
the Mona Lisa with Ghirlandaio's portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni (Figure 16 58). Notice how Ghirlandaio's lighting tends to flatten the figure while
Leonardo's emphasizes the three dimensional qualities. Note particularly the detail of the hands of the Mona Lisa.
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Leonardo's Last Supper (Figure 17 3) draws on the fifteenth century concern with perspective, but he uses it to emphasize the important features
of his composition, not as an end in itself. Note how all the orthogonals converge on Christ's head. (See discussion of orthogonals in the section on
perspective theory.) The power of Leonardo's composition is apparent when one compares it to Castagno's version, done in the mid fifteenth
century (Figure 16¬30). Notice that Castagno physically isolates Judas by placing him on the opposite side of the table from the other apostles, but
Leonardo psychologically isolates him. There are two people at the table who know who is going to betray Christ. One of them is Christ himself,
who accepts it calmly because He knows it is a necessary part of the plan of salvation: He must be betrayed in order to be crucified and so redeem
humanity. He has accepted that necessity. The other is Judas, who is represented by Leonardo with his face in the shadow, drawing back, and
clutching the bag with the forty pieces of silver. He has already been paid and is waiting for the moment of betrayal.
Leonardo's notebooks demonstrate his intense interest in anatomy. He was able to dissect corpses of criminals that had been hung, but in general
it was very difficult to obtain bodies for such purposes since it was considered sacrilegious. Figure 17 5 is a careful study of a child in utero. The
rocks and plants in the Virgin of the Rocks (Figure 17 1) are depicted with great care. Although Leonardo did many thoughtful drawings of
geological formations with scientific accuracy, he was also very much interested in the power of the imagination. He once counseled young
painters to use the forms of rocks as the basis for their paintings of mountains, and to look at the stains in old walls as a means of stimulating their
imaginations. Notice the fantastic mountains in the background of the Mona Lisa (Figure 17-4).
No one is certain whether his scientific studies were intended to support his painting, or whether his painting was just another expression of his
many interests. In addition to his concern for pure scientific research, Leonardo devoted much of his time to applied science, to flight, to
engineering, and to weapons design. Even in the days of the glorious Renaissance when artistic development was at its height, the military budget
apparently still had priority, as is illustrated by the job application Leonardo submitted to Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, in 1481. The text gives
one paragraph from the letter, but I think you might be interested in hearing the entire letter.
Your Gracious Highness I have sufficiently seen and tested the productions of all those who are considered masters of the art of inventing war
machines. And since the working and function of these instruments is no different from that of the machines in common use, I shall endeavor—
approaching no one else to make myself clear to your Excellency and reveal my seaets. I shall put them at your disposal whenever you desire and
hope for good results from the things which I shall now briefly describe.
First: I have a means of making very light bridges which can be very easily transported . . . And I have others which are proof against fire and are
thus indestructible in battle, easy to take down and put up again, and I also know of a means to get fore to the bridges of the enemy and destroy
them. Secondly: in besieging a place, I know how to cut off the water in the dikes, also how to construct many drawbridges and other apparatus
necessary for such an undertaking. Thirdly: if during a siege the engines cannot be effectively used on account of the height or strength of the town
wall, I have means to destroy every tower or fortification . . . Fourthly: I know of a kind of siege engine which is very light and easy to move and
which can be used to hurl fire bombs. Their smoke will terrify, confuse, and severely injure the enemy. Fifthly: I know how to construct
subterranean caves and winding passages which can be made without any noise . . . Sixthly: I can make sound, indestructible armored vehicles. If
these reach the enemy with their cannons, they can compel the largest forces to retreat and afterwards the infantry can follow them in safety and
without any let or hindrance. Seventhly: I can make, if necessary, bombards, mortar, and other field guns . . . Eighthly: Where cannons cannot be
used I shall construct stone¬throwing machines, catapults, slings, and other instruments, amazing and hitherto completely unknown . . . Ninthly: If
this should be necessary, I know of apparatus for use at sea for attack and defense, such as ships which can withstand the force of the strongest
opponents and produce dust and smoke.
In time of peace I believe I can achieve something in architecture, as well as another, both in building public and private buildings, and in
channelling water from one place to another. Further, I work as a sculptor in marble, bronze, and clay and can paint as well as others with whom I
may be compared. I could also add my labours to the bronze horse which is to contribute to the undying fame and eternal memory of your father
and the renowned house of Sforza . . .
Unlike many of the other great masters of the Renaissance, Leonardo did not go to Rome, but found employment iR Milan and later in France,
making astounding discoveries in the realms of pure science, engineering, physiology, and art—the epitome of the Renaissance "universal man."
Suggested Images: Figures 15 30, 16 38, 17 1, 17 2, 17 3, 17 4, 17 5, 17 7, 17 24, 17 38, 18 9
2.
Rome: Center of Papal Power
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During this period the center of High Renaissance artistic activity shifted from Florence to Rome. Artistic activity in Florence declined as a result of
the expulsion of the Medici and the stormy rule of Savonarola, who included Humanist works of art among the sinful vanities. A series of powerful
Popes commissioned magnificent works of art to decorate their city. We generally date the High Renaissance from roughly 1495 to 1527. On the
latter date Rome was sacked by the raging Protestant forces and the heroic age of the High Renaissance was symbolically brought to a close.
One of the major figures of the High Renaissance was Pope Julius II, who enticed the best artists he could find to come to Rome to execute his
grand ideas. Among them were the architect Bramante, who designed the new church of St. Peter's (Figure 17 7); Michelangelo, who came to
Rome to carve a magnificent tomb for Julius but stayed to paint the Sistine ceiling (Figure 17 24) and to design the dome for the great cathedral
(Figure 17 34); and Raphael, who decorated a room in the Vatican with his frescoes (Figure 17¬16) which represented the final reconciliation of
Christian theology with pagan philosophy and art (Figure 17 16).
Bramante's plan for St. Peter's (Figure 17 7) was to have embodied Alberti's centralized structure, the perfect Renaissance symbol for God. A medal
done in 1506 shows Bramante's design (Figure 17 8), which combines a Greek moss plan with a centralized dome. While St. Peter's was not finished
according to Bramante's plan, the centralized structure can be seen clearly in the formal Tempietto he built over the spot said to be the place
where St. Peter was crucified. The Tempietto shows the classic virtues of regularity, simplicity, and clarity. Santa Maria delta Consolazione in Todi
(Figure 17 9) gives an excellent idea of the what Bramante's plan for St. Peter's looked like. Shaped as a domed, equal armed cross, its arms end in
rounded apses. It is thought Bramante's elevations for the new St. Peter's inspired Raphael's setting of the School of Athens (Figure 17 16). After
Bramante's death, Michelangelo took over as architect. One of his designs can be seen in Figure 17 34. However, the dome was completed after
Michelangelo's death by Giacomo della Porta, who followed an earlier design (Figure 17 33).
The young Michelangelo had been brought to Rome in 1505 by Julius II to carve a tomb that he felt would be a fitting resting place to the Pope. It
was to be a free standing monument placed right under the dome of the new church of St. Peter's that Bramante was building. According to the
first plan the tomb would take up 800 square feet of floor space and was to contain over 40 life sized marble figures plus bronze reliefs.
Michelangelo greeted the commission as the opportunity of a lifetimes but finally came to regard it as the tragedy of his life. He worked on it on
and off for 40 years, from the time he was 30 until he was 70. Julius changed his mind several times about what he wanted. After his death in 1513
his heirs wanted Michelangelo to complete the tomb, but on a reduced scale. Only the magnificent figure of Moses (Figure 17 20) recalls the
original conception. Figures 17 21 and 17 22 represent the two slaves originally intended for the tomb. They are thought to reflect the Neo Platonic
ideas that the young Michelangelo had absorbed in Ficino's NeoPlatonic academy in Florence: that is, the enslavement of the human soul by
matter.
Most scholars believe that Neo Platonic ideas were an integral part of Michelangelo's conception for the tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici
(Figure 17 27). Lorenzo is thought to symbolize the contemplative man while Giuliano represents the man of action, the two ideal human types.
The tomb may have symbolized the ascent of the soul through the Neo Platonic universe. The figures of Dusk and Dawn, Night and Day, which rest
on the sarcophagi are thought to symbolize the human realm of time, while river gods, which were originally intended to be placed on the lowest
level, symbolized the underworld of brute matter.
Michelangelo's most famous work, and possibly the most famous artwork of western man, is the great fresco of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (Figure
17 24). Michelangelo bitterly resented the commission, which Pope Julius insisted he complete. Michelangelo felt it was a plot by his rival Bramante
intended to discredit him in the Pope's eyes and to prevent him from working on the papal tomb. Michelangelo's ceiling is architecturally divided
into a series of carefully balanced spaces. All these spaces are filled with human bodies that, for the most part, are nude. There are no landscape
backgrounds and few landscape details. The entire message is carried by the human figures.
The major scenes proceed from the Drunkenness of Noah placed closest to the entrance of the chapel, to the Division of Light from Darkness,
which is placed closest to the altar. These scenes proceed as follows: Drunkenness of Noah, Deluge, Sacrifice of Noah, Temptation and Expulsion of
Adam and Eve, Creation of Eve, Creation of Adam (Figure 17 25), God Hovering over the Water, Creation of the Sun and Moon, and finally the
Separation of Light from Darkness. The corner spandrals represent Old Testament prototypes for Christian mysteries: Moses and the Brazen
Serpent, Judith cutting off the head of Holofernes, David and Goliath, and Haman. Other figures represent the prophets and the pagan sibyls who
foretold the coming of Christ and beautiful male nudes, called "ignudi." These figures perhaps represent the Neo Platonic idea that the mind is
elevated to God and to divine beauty through contemplation of earthly beauty. Adam is certainly one of the most beautiful human nudes ever
painted, and represents the fusion of Christian and pagan ideals. Before the recent cleaning, the color of the figures was relatively dark and smoky.
Finding it difficult to believe that Michelangelo had really intended the radiant hues revealed after the cleaning (Figure 17 26), some scholars
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accused the restorers of removing some of Michelangelo's overpainting, thus distorting the original colors. They had become used to colors that
were the result of four centuries of time and candle residue.
The Sistine ceiling had been one of the outstanding monuments that reflected the complete merger between Christian ideals and classical
Humanism. It illustrated the Neo Platonic belief so popular in the Renaissance that the soul was guided to God through beauty. The great Last
Judgment, painted by Michelangelo in the 1530s on the wall behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel, was done in a very different spirit. Painted after
the sack of Rome by the Protestants it reflects older, medieval ideas of judgment (Figure 17 35). Christ comes as a stern medieval judge, not as
savior. The mighty figure is far from the beautiful images of the Sistine ceiling. Other figures represent stark terror. As Michelangelo grew older and
more disillusioned with the fierce battles between Protestants and Catholics that raged in the sixteenth century, he turned inward, seeking a more
personal relationship with God. His poetry of this later period speaks less of an abstract divine essence and more of a God who he addresses
personally. He no longer believed that human beauty was the symbol of the divine. His poetry indicates that he came to fear beauty for he felt it
was a distraction from the pure things of the spirit.
Bramante's work on St. Peter's was but one aspect of the grandiose plans that Pope Julius II had formulated for the glorification of the Papacy. The
papal city state, known as the Vatican, contained other buildings beside the great church of St. Peter's. Among them were the famous Sistine
Chapel, which we already discussed, and the Stanza delta Segnatura. The young artist Raphael won the commission to decorate the latter room,
and he completed four great frescoes there from 1509 15, frescoes that are thought to symbolize Philosophy, Religion, Poetry, and Jurisprudence.
The most famous of Raphael's frescoes, known as The School of Athens (Figure 17 16), represents Philosophy. One of the two central figures, Plato,
points upward to signify that truth comes from above, while the other, Aristotle, points to the ground because truth for him comes from
experience. Around them are clustered other figures representing other aspects of human reason. One group of mathematicians shows Euclid
demonstrating a proposition in geometry to his students. Raphael has given Euclid the features of the aging Bramante, the architect of St. Peters.
As noted above, most critics believe that the background architecture for the School of Athens was a projection of Bramante's plan for St. Peter's.
The beardless youth at the far right is thought to be a self portrait of Raphael, while the bearded figure near him may represent Leonardo. The men
on the other side of the fresco represent the ancient philosophers who were concerned with the ultimate mysteries that transcend the world.
Pythagoras, who formulated the theories of musical intervals reflecting the harmonies of the spheres, sits writing while a servant holds up a
musical scale.
The Disputa, another of the great frescoes from the stanza, represents Divine Reason or Theology. The fresco brings together the divine company
of saints and an earthly company of Christian theologians. The Holy Sacrament forms the focal point for the converging perspective lines of the
lower section as well as the point of the V created by the successive circles inscribed within that V in the upper composition. The mystery of the
Eucharist embodied in the Mass, when the bread and wine are transformed into the blood and body of Christ, is indeed the moment when the
divine and the human realms merge. Raphael has illustrated his theological concept by means of his carefully structured composition.
The third wall of the stanza, the Parnassus, symbolizes Poetic Inspiration. The classical god Apollo sits crowned with laurel and playing a viol,
surrounded by a charming group of women representing the nine muses who inspire artists. On either side of them are representations of such
important artists from the past as the blind poet Homer, the lyric poetess Sappho, and the Italian writer Dante.
The final wall represents Jurisprudence or Law by two scenes from legal history and allegorical figures representing the Virtues of Fortitude,
Prudence, and Temperance. Thus the frescoes of the room summarize human endeavor in areas of philosophy, theology, law, and poetry. The
Renaissance ideal of the perfect merging of form and content is realized by Raphael in the great frescoes of the Stanza della Segnatura.
Suggested Images: Figures 17 7, 17 8, 17 9, 17 16, 17 20, 17 21, 17 22, 17 24, 17 25, 17 26, 17 27, 17 33, 17 34, 17 35
3.
The Renaissance in Venice
While Roman art was dominated by commissions from the Pope, artists in the Venetian Republic helped to decorate a city made rich by its trade
and its domination of the Mediterranean. The Venetian commander of the fleet is shown giving thanks for a victory to the Madonna in the
Madonna of the Pesaro Family (Figure 17 61). Behind him is a Turkish captive. The love of color and of rich fabrics that is typical of Venetian art may
have been influenced by its dealings with its enemies. Even though the Venetians were often at war with the Turks over dominance of the
Mediterranean, one contemporary noted something to the effect that Venice would have become Moslem if the Turks had offered them a good
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tax incentive. Venice was a much more secular city than was Rome, one that enjoyed all the good things of life and that did not take religion nearly
as seriously as did the Florentines or the Romans.
The art of Venice is suffused with color and warmth that was missing from the art of Rome or Florence. Good examples of the Venetian color, as
well as their taste for pleasure, can be seen in Bellini's Feast of the Gods (Figure 17 58) and Giorgione's Pastoral Symphony (Figure 17 59), both of
which were probably done with help from Titian. The Louvre now labels the Pastoral Symphony as done solely by Titian, who was the most famous,
as well as the most prolific, of the Venetians. The worldliness of Venetian painting is perhaps best represented by Titian's famous Venus of Urbino
(Figure 17 62), which was painted for the Duke of Urbino and used his mistress as the model. She is warm and sensual and very much aware of the
power of her sexuality as she gazes frankly at the spectator.
The spirit and worldliness of Venice can be seen in Veronese's magnificent Triumph of Venice (Figure 17 68), painted by Veronese on the ceiling of
Doge's Palace. Veronese's huge representation
of Christ in the House of Levi (Figure 17 67) is actually a Venetian feast, complete with actors, dwarfs, and dogs. The magnificent arcade is based on
the arches Jacopo Sansovino had used for his building of the State Library on San Marco's Square (Figure 17 50). Actually Veronese had intended his
painting to represent the Last Supper, but had changed the title after being quizzed by officers of the Inquisition who felt that the colorful company
was not appropriate for a representation of Christ's Last Supper. Veronese met their objections by changing the title.
Palladio's Villa Rotonda (Figures 17 51 and 17 52) provided a setting for a Venetian citizen's good life, and it also set the pattern for private villas for
much of the Western world for more than three hundred years (see Chiswick House: Figure 20 2, and Jefferson's Monticello, Figure 2042), and it is
still going strong. Its centralized structure, combining square and circular dome, its use of classical orders, its balance and restraint, and the clarity
of the mathematical relationships of its form, make it a perfect expression of the ideal Renaissance building. In fact, the term "Palladian" has
become synonymous with classical elegance.
Suggested Images: Figures 17 50, 17 51, 17 52, 17 58, 17 59, 17¬61, 17 62, 17 67, 17 68, 20 3, 20 38
4.
Mannerism
The young artists of Florence and Rome came to take the art of the older masters as model, particularly that of Michelangelo. But they were
ambivalent, as young men often are toward a father figure, sometimes slavishly imitating him and at others turning to new and exaggerated
stylizations. Michelangelo's figure, The Victor introduced a pose that became extremely popular with Mannerist sculptors—the corkscrew turn that
moves away from the planar organization of most Renaissance figures into an intricate spiral composition. The spiral became a favorite device with
the young sculptor Giovanni da Bologna who used it for The Rape of the Sabine Women (Figure 17 46). The exaggerated musculature of the figures
in Moses Defending the Daughiers of Jethro (Figure 1740) by the young Rosso Fiorentino shows the influence of Michelangelo's figures from the
Sistine (Figure 17 16). Michelangelo's figures of Night (Figure 17 27) and Dawn from the Medici tombs served as models for many young artists.
Michelangelo himself used the figure of Night as model for a now lost painting of Leda and the Swan. The more elegant figure of Dawn was used by
Benvenuto Cellini as model for the bronze figure of Diana that he cast for the French palace of Fontainebleau (Figure 1745). Like many other
Mannerist artists, Cellini exaggerated the elegance of the original, lengthening the legs and torso and making the elegant head amazingly small.
Mannerist nudes, which are often provocative and self conscious, can be compared to the natural unself conscious Renaissance nudes. Compare
Bronzino's Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time (Figure 1742) to Titian's Allegory of Sacred and Profane Love (Figure 17 60). One is clear and well balanced
while the other is complex and filled with tension. The various Mannerist explorations of space, form, and color are most pronounced in painting—
the nervous line, twisted or oblique space, asymmetrical designs, eccentric compositions, thin or sour colors, disproportions and disturbed
balances. Everything is held in a state of "dissonance, disassociation and doubt," to use scholar Wylie Sypher's phrase. Between 1520 and 1600
Europe was torn by contradictions; tormenting doubt made people oppose religious obedience to ardently held dogmatic principles. Mannerism is
full of contradictions: rigid formality and obvious disturbance, bareness and over elegance, mysticism and pornography. We can see these
contradictions clearly when we compare works like Pontormo's Descent from the Cross (Figure 17 39) to Raphael's Deposition. It may be that the
strange color combinations seen in Jacopo's Descent were based on some of Michelangelo's experiments. Compare Parmigianino's Madonna with
the Long Neck (Figure 17 41) with Andrea del Sarto's High Renaissance Madonna of the Harpies (Figure 17 36) or with Giovanni Bellini's San
Zaccaria Altarpiece (Figure 17 57). The Renaissance concern with balance, ease, and proportion and the High Renaissance pyramid composition are
seen in both of the latter works, while the Parmigianino
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deliberately seems unbalanced, with large figures contrasted with small ones. Proportions are not natural, and if the Virgin stood up, she would be
incredibly tall.
Raphael's Portrait of Castiglione (Figure 17 18) can be contrasted to Bronzino's elegant Mannerist portrait (Figure 1743). Bronzino's portrait shows
the rigid formality and mask like face guarding the personality that was so typical of the mid sixteenth century Florentine court. How different is
this from Raphael's portrait of Castiglione, which demonstrated the ideal Renaissance courtier, gracious, restrained, and in effortless control.
Titian's portrait of the Man with the Glove (Figure 17 63) is much closer to Castiglione's sense of grace and ease than it is to the self conscious
elegance of the Mannerist portrait.
Mannerist architecture can be similarly contrasted with that of the High Renaissance. The Palazzo del Te (Figure 1747) by Guilio ltomano is an
excellent example of the Mannerist style. In the court hcade (Figure 17 48) Guilio broke many of the rules of classical architecture. Here the
keystones have not yet settled into their established positions and bits of the triglyph metope frieze have slipped out of alignment. In the illusionist
frescoes from the interior (Figure 1749) the entire building seems to be collapsing.
Suggested Images: Figures 17 16,17 27,17 36,17 39,17-40, 17-41, 17 42, 17-43, 17-45, 17 46, 1i 47, 1748, 17-49, 17 57, 17 60, 17 63