Chapter 1 – Understanding Sociology
Sociology – The systematic study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses on social relationship; how those
relationships influence people’s behavior; and how societies, the sum total of those relationships, develop and change.
Sociologists rely on sociological imagination – an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider
society. This allows us to comprehend the links between our immediate, personal social settings and the remote,
impersonal social world that surrounds and helps to shape us. A key element of such is the ability to view one’s own
society as an outsider would. It allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to understand broader
public issues.
Sociology and the Social Sciences
Science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation.
Natural science is the study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change.
Social science is the study of social features of humans and the way they interact and change. It includes sociology,
anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science. They have a common focus on social behavior, but
each has a particular orientation. Sociologists study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior,
and the ways in which people interact and shape society
Sociology and Common Sense
We all have experience with human behavior and at least some knowledge of it. We may have theories about why
people become homeless, for example. Our theories typically come from common sense. We rely on our common
sense to get us through many unfamiliar situations however, it is not always reliable. For example, common sense
dictates that disaster produce panic, yet studies indicate that decision making become more centralized in time of
disasters. Sociologists do not accept something as a fact because “everyone knows it.” At times, the findings of
sociologist may seem like common sense, because they deal with familiar facets of everyday life.
Sociological Theory
In sociology, a theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior. An effective theory
may have both explanatory and predictive power.
Suicide Studies of Emile Durkheim
In 1869, England only had 67 reported suicides per million inhabitants, France had 135, Denmark had 277
Protestants had much higher suicide rates than Catholics
Unmarried had much higher rates that married
Soldiers are more prone than civilians
Higher in times of peace than in times of war
In times of economic instability and recession, than in times of prosperity
Durkheim concluded that the suicide rates of a society reflected the extent to which people were or were not integrated
into the group life of the society. His theory has predictive power.
Even the best theories are not a final statement about human behavior. Sociologists continue to examine factors that
contribute to difference in suicide rates.
The Development of Sociology
Auguste Comte (1718-1857) – The founder of sociology; coined the term “Sociology” to apply to the science of human
behavior; According to him, social behavior and events can be observed and measured scientifically; Social Physics – use
of empirical investigation to understand social phenomena.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) – Believed that societies are a sort of organisms that evolve through natural selection;
survival of the fittest; societies that adapt will survive; those that do not will perish; the natural laws should not be
disturbed or interfered by planned changes. He did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; he merely hoped
to understand it better.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) – Although humans can be a part of society; society still remains external to the individual;
individuals are more of a product rather than the creator of society. He insisted that behavior should be understood
within a larger social context, not just in individualistic terms. He was concerned about the dangers that alienation,
loneliness, and isolation might pose for modern industrial societies. He shared Comte’s belief that sociology should
provide direction for social change.
Max Weber (1864-1920) – Focused on “social action” which according to him can be understood by examining the
subjective meaning that people attach to them; subjective meaning is values-oriented, goal-oriented, emotionally
motivated, and traditional. He proposed the conceptual tool – Ideal Type. It is a construct or model for evaluating
specific cases.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) – Marx was so critical of existing institutions; angry about economic determinism and the
oppression of the lower classes; he advocated the elimination of capitalism; he believed that private property and
capitalism are the causes of poverty. He, together with Friedrich Engels, joined a secret coalition of laborers known as
the Communist League. They prepared a platform called The Communist Manifesto, in which they argued that the
masses of people with no resources other than their labor (Proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of
capitalist societies.
In Marx’s analysis, society was fundamentally divided between two classes that clashed in their pursuit of their own
interest – the exploiters and the exploited. He believed that the system of economic, social, and political relationships
maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers. His writings inspired those who would later lead
communist revolutions in Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, and elsewhere.
Marx emphasized the group identifications and associations that influence an individual’s place in society.
Modern Developments
Charles Horton Cooley – He preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units – intimate face-toface groups such as families, gangs, and friendship networks; considered them as seedbeds of society, in the sense that
they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values, and social nature.
Jane Addams – A pioneering sociologist who combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism –
all with the goal of assisting the underprivileged and creating a more egalitarian society
Robert Merton – Produced a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior. People
have different ways of attempt to achieve success in life; some may deviate from socially approve goals and socially
accepted means of achieving a goal, i.e.: illegal means including robbery or extortion. Thus, there are high crime rates
among the nation’s poor, who may see no hope of advancing themselves through traditional roads to success.
Merton also emphasized that sociology should strive to bring together the macro-level and micro-level approaches to
the study of society.
Major Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalist Perspective
Talcott Parsons. Views society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. Saw
society as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. If an aspect of
social life does not contribute to a society’s stability and survival, it will not be passed on from one generation to the
next.
Manifest and Latent Functions
Manifest functions of institutions are open stated, conscious functions. They involve the intended, recognized
consequences of an aspect of a society.
Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution.
Dysfunction refers to an element or process of a society that may actually disrupt the social system or reduce its
stability. Yet, even some dysfunctions may be viewed differently, depending on one’s own values.
Conflict Perspective
This perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing
groups. i.e.: Labor negotiations, party politics, disputes over the government budget.
The Marxist View
Expanding on Marx’s work, sociologists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of
everyday life in all societies. Conflict theorist are interested in how society’s institutions – including the family,
government, religion, education, and the media – may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in
a subservient position.
Interactionist Perspective
This perspective focuses on aspects of microsociology. Interactionists generalize about everyday forms of social
interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Interactionism is a sociological framework of viewing human being as
living in a world of meaningful objects; which includes material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even
symbols – symbolic interactionist perspective. Members of a society share social meanings of symbols. Through
symbols, people communicate their values and beliefs to those around them.
George Herbert Mead. He was interested in observing the most minute forms of communication – smiles, frowns, nods
– and in understanding how such individual behaviors were influenced by the larger context of a group or society.
Sociologists make use of all the perspectives, since each offers unique insights into the same issue.