CARTOGRAPHIC
DESIGN
Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340)
Prof. Hugh Howard
American River College
INTRODUCTION to
CARTOGRAPHIC
DESIGN
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Is a partly mental, partly physical
process in which maps are conceived
and created (a verb)
– The word design can also be a noun
– A map can have a particular design, but
design in this sense is only the end result
of the design process
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Successful cartographic design
– Results in maps that effectively
communicate geographic information
An ineffective
communicator
An effective
communicator
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Cartographic design involves
– Conceptualization of the map
– Visualization of the map
– Construction of the map
•
A partly mental, partly physical process
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Is driven by two goals
– To create a map that appropriately serves
the map user and the map’s intended use
– To create a map that communicates
efficiently, with simplicity and clarity
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Is directed by rules, guidelines, and
conventions, but is relatively
unstructured
– A single, optimal solution to a given
mapping problem generally does not exist
– Several acceptable solutions are possible
– “Good design is simply the best solution
among many, given a set of constraints
imposed by the problem” (Dent 1999)
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Cartographic design is difficult!
– If it were easy, expert systems would be
used to design most maps
– Expert systems are applications that make
decisions based on rules and guidelines
obtained from cartographic experts
– Cartographic expert systems are currently
limited to narrow aspects of cartographic
design, and lack the ability to completely
and consistently design top-quality maps
CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN
•
Build a foundation of cartographic
design skills by following the specific
rules and guidelines presented here
– Consider alternative approaches once you
master these rules and guidelines
– Always be prepared to explain or defend
your design decisions
MAP DESIGN
RESEARCH
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
Map design research has guided many
aspects of cartographic design
– Arthur Robinson (1952) sparked
enthusiasm for this research with The
Look of Maps
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
In The Look of Maps, Robinson
– Emphasized the importance of a map’s
function over its form
– Called for objective experimentation with
regard to map design
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
•
Two schools of though emerged
The “behaviorist” view
– Focused on determining which mapping
techniques are most effective, without
regard for why they are effective
•
The “cognitive” view
– Focused on why certain techniques are
effective by applying knowledge structures
to the ways that people perceive maps
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
Results of eye-movement studies
performed by George Jenks (1973)
– These studies remain as seminal
examples of map design research
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
Results of eye-movement studies
performed by Sarah Fabrikant (2005)
– Modern eye-movement study
Circle sizes indicate the
amount of time the map
user’s eye was fixated
at a given location
MAP DESIGN RESEARCH
•
Hans Meihoefer (1969) performed
studies related to circle sizes
– Helped determine the minimum size
differences required for map users to
distinguish one circle from another
ART and
GRAPHIC DESIGN
ART
•
The “art” of maps plays an important
role in cartographic communication
– The artistic aspect of maps is guided less
by experimentation, and more by intuition
– A map that embodies an artistic sensibility
has a greater chance of communicating
information than a “non-artistic” map
ART
•
The overt aspect of art
– Maps can be beautiful
•
The less obvious aspect of art
– There is an “art” to good map design
– The cartographer synthesizes a wide
variety of factors and produces a map
– Human artistic abilities make this
synthesis possible
GRAPHIC DESIGN
•
The link between cartographic design
and graphic design is strong
– Graphic design emphasizes
communication through graphical means,
but is oriented toward advertisements and
packaging, as opposed to maps
– Graphic designers are responsible for a
significant proportion of maps produced
for print and on-line publication
GESTALT PRINCIPLES of
PERCEPTUAL
ORGANIZATION
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Gestalt is a theory of visual perception
developed in the 1920s
– It attempts to describe how humans see
the individual components of a graphical
image, and organize them into a unified
whole
– These principles represent the theoretical
underpinning for many cartographic
design rules, guidelines, and conventions
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Gestalt principles include the following
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Closure
Common Fate
Continuity
Figure-Ground
Proximity
Similarity
Smallness/Area
Symmetry
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Closure
– Allows us to complete an image even
when parts are missing
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Common Fate
– Allows us to group elements that share
the same moving direction
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Continuity
– Allows us to move our eyes from one
object to another
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Figure-Ground
– Allows us to perceive certain objects as
being closer to us (and more important)
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Proximity
– Allows us to view objects that are close
together as a group
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Similarity
– Allows us to group objects that are similar
in size, shape, color, etc.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Smallness or Area
– Allows us to view the smaller of
overlapping areas as figures
GESTALT PRINCIPLES
•
Symmetry
– Allows us to view symmetrical objects as
whole figures (forming around the center)
THE IMAGE POOL
IMAGE POOL
•
Is a mental inventory of designs and
design possibilities
– Taken from maps, graphics, and images
•
•
Build it by critically viewing art, graphic
design, and maps
Many examples of well-designed maps
appear in the lectures and textbook
– Use these to help build your image pool
THE DESIGN PROCESS
THE DESIGN PROCESS
•
Map Communication Model
– List of the basic steps
involved in communicating
geographic information
– Design process
encompasses the entire
model, but is most
concentrated in Step 4
– I will focus on Step 4,
assuming that Steps 1-3
have been completed
THE DESIGN PROCESS
•
The design process can be distilled
into a list of procedures
– These procedures are iterative, and need
to be repeated until the map is complete
– These procedures will sometimes need to
be executed simultaneously, or out of the
prescribed order
THE DESIGN PROCESS
1. Determine how the map will be
reproduced
– Reproduction considerations, such as the
printing method to be used, will impact
almost every aspect of the design
process, and need to be resolved first
2. Select a scale and map projection that
are appropriate for the map’s theme
– This will form the foundation of your map
THE DESIGN PROCESS
3. Determine the most appropriate
methods for data classification and
symbolization
– This will allow you to craft your message
4. Select which map elements to employ,
and decide how each will be
implemented
– You must also decide how to implement
type
THE DESIGN PROCESS
5. Establish an Intellectual Hierarchy
– A ranking of symbols and map elements
according to their relative importance
– The following is a general hierarchy for
thematic maps
Most
Important
Least
Important
•
•
•
•
•
•
Thematic symbols and type labels
Title, subtitle, and legend
Base information (boundaries, roads, etc.)
Scale and north arrow
Data source and notes
Frame and neat lines
THE DESIGN PROCESS
6. Create one or more sketch maps
– A sketch map is a rough, generalized
hand drawing that represents your
developing design
THE DESIGN PROCESS
7. Construct the map
– Place, modify, and arrange map elements
according to your sketch map, and in the
order that was previously recommended
Print rough drafts
to evaluate and
refine the
evolving map
VISUAL HIERARCHY
VISUAL HIERARCHY
•
Graphical representation of the
intellectual hierarchy
– Thematic symbols are graphically
emphasized and base information is
deemphasized
– More important map elements (title,
legend, etc.) are graphically emphasized,
and less important elements (bar scale,
data source, etc.) are deemphasized
VISUAL HIERARCHY
•
An effective visual hierarchy
– Attracts the map user’s eyes to the most
important aspects of the map first, and to
less important aspects later
– Results in a map that clearly reflects the
relative importance of symbols and map
elements
– Results in maps that are easier to
interpret, and are more attractive
VISUAL HIERARCHY
•
Implemented by altering the visual
weight of map features
– The visual weight refers to the relative
amount of attention that things attract
– Visual weight can be manipulated to
emphasize or deemphasize features
VISUAL HIERARCHY
Inverted
(incorrect)
Visual Hierarchy
Based on an Inverted
Intellectual Hierarchy
• Frame and neat lines
• Data source and notes
• Scale and north arrow
• Base information
• Title, subtitle, and legend
• Thematic symbols and type
VISUAL HIERARCHY
Correct
Visual Hierarchy
Based on a Correct
Intellectual Hierarchy
• Thematic symbols and type
• Title, subtitle, and legend
• Base information
• Scale and north arrow
• Data source and notes
• Frame and neat lines
CONTRAST
CONTRAST
•
•
Visual differences between map
features that allow us to distinguish
one from another
Contrast adds interest to a map by
providing graphical variety
– It can be used to differentiate features
(qualitative)
– Or to imply their relative importance or
magnitude (quantitative)
CONTRAST
•
Can be achieved through manipulation
of the visual variables
– Qualitative Contrast can be used to
differentiate features
Qualitative Visual Variables
CONTRAST
•
Can be achieved through manipulation
of the visual variables (cont.)
– Quantitative Contrast can be used to imply
relative importance or magnitude
Quantitative Visual Variables
CONTRAST
•
•
Map on the right represents
appropriate contrast
Map on the left lacks appropriate
contrast in four respects
–
–
–
–
Lightness and size of thematic symbols
Size of lines (line width)
Type size
Difference between the mapped area and
the background
CONTRAST
Inappropriate Contrast
Appropriate Contrast
FIGURE-GROUND
FIGURE-GROUND
•
A special type of contrast
– Has already been introduced…
•
A Gestalt principle of perceptual
organization
– Refers to methods of accentuating certain
objects over others by making them
appear closer to the map user
FIGURE-GROUND
•
Map design research has not produced
guidelines for figure-ground that are
guaranteed to work in every situation
– The following guidelines work well in most
cases
•
Separate approaches
– To accentuate points and/or lines
– To accentuate areas
FIGURE-GROUND
•
To accentuate points and/or lines
– Make the points or lines darker than their
surroundings
Base information has been lightened through “screening”
FIGURE-GROUND
•
To accentuate areas
– Make the area lighter than its
surroundings
The surrounding area has been darkened
FIGURE-GROUND
•
Land-Water Contrast
– A special case of figure-ground
accentuating a lighter area
– The “ground” is water
FIGURE-GROUND
•
Making an area lighter than its
surroundings is not always appropriate
– When the mapped area is dense with
areal thematic symbols (esp. when color is
limited to shades of gray)
Areal thematic symbols provide
enough contrast between the mapped
area and its surroundings
Gray background might be confused
with thematic symbols
FIGURE-GROUND
•
Multiple layers of importance can be
represented
– Features can be assigned relative
importance, based on relative proximity to
the map user
Circles act as figures in relation to
countries (which act as ground)
Countries, while subordinate to
circles, act as figures in relation to
water (which acts as ground)
Countries appear further away than
circles, yet closer than water
FIGURE-GROUND
•
Alternative methods of establishing
figure-ground that accentuates areas
– Imposition on a graticule
– Vignette
BALANCE
BALANCE
•
•
The organization of map elements and
available space, resulting in visual
harmony and equilibrium
The map elements in a well-designed
map tend to complement one another
– Those in a poorly-designed map appear to
compete for space, resulting in visual
disharmony
BALANCE
•
Before attempting to achieve balance,
the initial available space needs to be
identified
– Initial available space is the area the map
will occupy—as defined by the frame line
Frame Line
BALANCE
•
Identify the initial available space
Initial available space is
defined by the frame line
BALANCE
•
Place larger map elements
Mapped area is as
large as possible
Mapped area is
visually centered
(horizontally and vertically)
Title is placed
at top center
BALANCE
•
Reevaluate available space and place
Map elements that are
intermediate in size, such as
the legend
Legend is visually centered
within larger portion of
available space
BALANCE
•
Reevaluate available space and place
The smallest map elements,
such as the data source
and bar scale
Map elements are visually
centered within appropriate
areas of available space
Available space still remains
BALANCE
•
The addition of each map element
alters the preexisting balance and
available space
– Map elements typically need to be
rearranged several times to achieve good
balance
– Certain individuals are intrinsically better
at judging balance, but experience
improves one’s skills
BALANCE
•
•
Evaluating balance
Does the map look left-heavy, rightheavy, top-heavy, bottom-heavy?
– Top-heavy designs are of particular
concern
•
Do certain areas appear cramped or
barren?
– Are map elements competing for space?
– Are too many “heavy” objects
concentrated in one area?
BALANCE
•
Evaluating balance (cont.)
Poorly
Balanced
BALANCE
•
Evaluating balance (cont.)
Well
Balanced
BALANCE
•
Evaluating balance (cont.)
Do the best
you can,
given the
constraints!
CARTOGRAPHIC
DESIGN
Cartographic Design for GIS (Geog. 340)
Prof. Hugh Howard
American River College