The Research Spiral
Identify the
Research Problem
Evaluate Data
and
Write Report
Analyze and
Interpret
Data
Review the
Literature
Collect Data
Specify a
Research
Purpose
Identifying a Research
Problem
Research Problem is the focus of a
research investigation
Differences Among Topic, Problem,
Purpose and Questions
General
Topic
Specific
Distance Learning
Research
Problem
Lack of students in distance
classes
Purpose
Statement
To study why students do not
attend distance education classes at
a community college.
Research
Question
Does the use of web site technology
in the classroom deter students
from enrolling in a distance
education class?
Flow of Ideas in a Problem
Statement
FLOW OF IDEAS
Topic
Subject
Area
Educational
Issue
•A Concern
•A Problem
•Something
that needs a
solution
Evidence for
the
Issue
•Evidence from
the literature
•Evidence from
practical
experiences
Deficiencies
in the
Evidence
•In this body of
evidence, what is
missing?
•What do we
need to know
more about?
What
Remedying
the Deficiencies
will do for
Select
Audiences
How will
addressing
what we need to
know help:
researchers
– educators
– policy-makers
– individuals like
those in the study
Specifying a Purpose, Research
Questions or Hypothesis
Research Questions???

Usually a research problem is initially
posed as a question, which serves a focus of
the researcher’s investigation
Some Times When Operational Definitions
Would Be Helpful
Figure 2.2
8
Variables and Hypotheses

One of the most important concepts in research is
the concept of ‘variable.” Many kinds of variables
exist, and much ed. Res. involves looking for
relationships among variables In this lesson,
several kinds of variables are described and
discussed. In addition, the concept of
“hypothesis” is discussed, since many hypotheses
express relationships between variables.
Hypotheses are based directly on the
research question and can be regarded
as extension of it.
Lesson Objectives
1.
Explain what is meant by the term
“Variable” and name five variables that
might be investigated by educational
researchers.
 2.
Explain how a variable differ from a
constant
 3.
Distinguish between a quantitative and
a categorical variable
 4.
Explain how independent and
dependent variables are related
Objectives (cont’)



5. Explain what a hypothesis is and formulate
two hypotheses that might be investigated in
education
6.
Name two advantages and two disadvantages
of stating research questions as hypotheses
7.
Distinguish between directional and nondirectional hypotheses and give an example of each
Relationships


R. Qs often (but not
always)suggest a
relationship of some
sort to be investigated.
RLTS Means that two
qualities or
characteristics are tied
together or connected
in some way


Are motivation and
learning related? If
so how?
A principal’s
administrative
policies and faculty
morale?
Relationships (cont.)


IT is important to understand how the term
“relationship” is used in research, since the
term has other meanings in everyday life.
When researchers use the term RLTS, they
are not referring to the nature or quality of an
association between people, for example.
Look at the next slide
Illustration of Relationship Between Voter
Gender and Party Affiliation
Figure 2.3
9
Relationships (cont.)


There is a strong RLTS between the two
factors shown in group B.
We can express the RLTS in group B by
saying that males tend to be Republications
while females tend to be democrats. We can
also express this RLTS in terms of a
prediction. Should another female joint group
B. She would be a democrat since 14 of the
previous 16 females are Democrats.
Relationships (cont.)


Sometimes researchers are interested
only in obtaining descriptive information
to find out how people think or feel or
to describe how they behave in a
particular situation.
Other times the intent is to describe a
particular program or activity.
Definition of a Variable
A Variable
(A Characteristic or Attribute)
Can be
Measured
(Can be assessed
on an instrument
and recorded on
an instrument)
and
Varies
(Can assume
different values or
scores for
different
individuals)
Variables and Constructs
A Variable is an attribute or
characteristic stated in a specific or
applied way
 A Construct is an attribute or
characteristic
expressed
in
an
abstract,
Construct
Student Achievement
general way.

Variable
Grade Point Average
How Many Variables Can You Identify?
Page 54
15
Variables
What is a variable?



A variable is a concept - a noun that stands for
variation within a class of objects,
The individual members in the class of objects,
however, must differ - or vary - to qualify the class
as variable.
Suppose a researcher researcher is interested in
studying the effects of reinforcement on student
achievement.
The effects of reinforcement on
student achievement.

The researcher systematically divides a
large group of students, all of whom are
ninth-graders, into three smaller subgroups
to reinforce their students in different ways
(one gives verbal praise, the second gives
monetary rewards, the third gives extra
points) for various tasks the students
perform.


Notice that it is easier to see what some of
these concepts stand for than others.
“motivation’
Researchers must be specific here – they
must define ‘motivation” as clearly as
possible the concept clearly as possible.
They must do this so that it can be measured
or manipulated.
Many variables ‘out there” in the real world
that can be investigated

We cannot meaningfully
measure or manipulate a
variable if we cannot
define it. As we
mentioned above
educational research
involves looking for a
relationship among
variables. But what
variables?

Researchers choose
certain variables to
investigate because they
have a suspicion that these
variables are somehow
related and that if they can
discover the nature of this
relationship, it can help us
make more sense of the
world in which we live.
constants

If all members of a class are identical, we
do not have a variable. Such characteristics
are called constants, since the individual
members of the class are not allowed to
vary, but rather are held constant. In any
study, some characteristics will be variables,
while others will be constants.
Illustration of Quantitative Compared
with Categorical Variables
Figure 4.1
16
Categorical Variables
Figure 4.2
17
Categorical Variables

Can ‘teaching method” be considered a
variable?
Teaching method?


Yes, it can
Suppose a researcher is interested in
studying teachers who use different
methods in teaching. The researcher locates
one teacher who lectures exclusively,
another who buttresses her lectures with
slides and filmstrips, and a third who uses
the case-study method and lectures not all.
Vary?


Does the teaching method “vary”? It does.
You may need to practice thinking of
differences in methods, or in groups of
people (teachers compared to
administrators, for ex.) as variables, but
mastering this idea is extremely useful in
learning about research.
Which ones are quantitative variables
and which ones categorical variables?


1.Make of automobile
2. Learning ability
3.
 4.

ethnicity
Cohesivenes
s
 5.
Heartbeat
rate
 6.
gender
Research Involves the Study of Relationships
Between Variables
Page 59
a. Two quantitative variables
•
•
•
•
Age and amount of interest in school
Reading achievement and mathematics achievement
Classroom humanism and student motivation
Amount of time watching television and aggressiveness of behavior
b. One categorical and one quantitative variable
•
•
•
•
Method used to teach reading and reaching achievement
Counseling approach and level of anxiety
Nationality and liking for school
Student gender and amount of praise given by teachers
c. Two categorical variables
•
•
•
•
18
Ethnicity and father’s occupation
Gender of teacher and subject taught
Administrative style and college major
Religious affiliation and political party membership
quantitative or categorical

Sometimes researchers
have a choice of
whether to treat a
variable as
quantitative or
categorical.

It is not uncommon, for
example, to find studies in
which a variable such as
“anxiety” is studied by
comparing a group of
“high-anxiety” to group of
‘low-anxiety” students.
This treats anxiety as
though it were a
categorical variable.
quantitative or categorical (cont.)

While there is nothing really wrong with
doing this, there are three reasons why it is
preferable in such situations to treat variable
as quantitative
there are three reasons why it is preferable in
such situations to treat variable as quantitative



1.
conceptually, we must consider variables such as
anxiety to be a matter of degree in people, not matter of eitheror
2.
Collapsing the variable into two (or even several)
categories eliminates the possibility of using more detailed
information about the variable, since differences among
individuals with a category are ignored.
3.
The dividing line between groups (for example, between
the individuals of high, middle, and low anxiety) is almost
always arbitrary (that is, lacking in any defensible rationale)
Manipulated versus Outcome
Variables

Whenever researchers set up an experiment
along the lines of the examples described in
which there are two or more experimental
conditions, they create a variable.
Manipulated versus Outcome
Variables(cont.)

Suppose, for example, that
a researcher decides to
investigate the effect of
different amounts of
reinforcement on reading
achievement and
systematically assigns
students to different
groups.

One group is praised
continuously every
day during their
reading session; the
second group is told
simply to ‘keep up the
good work”; the third
group is told nothing
at all.
Manipulated versus Outcome
Variables(cont.)



The researcher, in effect,
manipulates the conditions in the experiment,
thereby creating the variable “amount of
reinforcement.”
Whenever experimental conditions are set up by a
researcher, one or more variables are created Such
variables are called experimental variables or
manipulated variables or treatment variables..
Manipulated versus Outcome
Variables(cont.)

most studies in education with one
quantitative and one categorical variable are
studies comparing different methods or
treatments. In such studies, the different
methods or treatments represent a
categorical variable. Often the other
variable, the quantitative one, is referred to
as an "outcome variable."
Manipulated versus Outcome
Variables(cont.)

(it also possible for an outcome variable to
be categorical For example, the variable
‘college completion” could be divided into
the categories of “dropouts” and “college
graduates.”)
outcome variables

The investigation, after all, is interested in
the effect of the differences in method on
one or more outcomes (the achievement of
students, their motivation, interest, and so
on). An outcome is a result of some sort, an
observed behavior, product, or condition of
an organism that has been stimulated in
some way.
outcome variables

Since such out comes vary for different
people, in different situations, and under
different conditions, they are often called
outcome variables.
All of the following can be
examples of outcome variables




The amount of uneasiness
that applicants for a
position express in an
interview.
How anxious students are
before an examination
Neatness
The “openness” of a
classroom




How disruptive students
are in a history class
The ability of people to
express themselves in
writing
Fluency in a foreign
language
Teacher-student rapport
Notice two things about each of
the above examples

Notice two things
about each of the
above examples. First,
each represents a
possible result or
outcome of some sort
that can be produced
by something else. In
a methods study,.


researchers are
interested in the effect
of different methods
on a particular
outcome or outcomes
They are never
completely certain as
to what it is, exactly
that produces these
outcomes, however.
Outcomes

Many outcomes like those above are not
very well understood by educators.
Researchers have designed studies not only
to understand better the nature of these (and
other) outcomes but also to gain insight into
what causes them.
Outcomes

The second thing to notice about each of the
examples above is that the amount or degree of
each can vary in different situations or under
different conditions. Not all people have the same
degree of fluency in Spanish, for example. The
amount of rapport that exists between teachers and
students varies for different teachers with different
students, and vice versa. Neatness,
expressiveness, anxiety – such qualities are
possessed in varying amounts by different people.
That is why they can be considered quantitative
variables.
check for understanding


Suppose a researcher plans to investigate
the following question: “will students who
are taught by a team of three teachers learn
more science that students taught by one
individual teacher?”
What is the outcome variable in this
question?
Independent Versus dependent
variable


An independent variable is presumed to have an
effect on, to influence somehow, another variable.
The variable that the independent variable is
presumed to affect is called the dependent (or
outcome) variable. The nature of the dependent
variable "depends on" what the independent
variable does to it, how it affects it.
Independent Variables

Not al independent variables are manipulated The
relationship between childhood success in
mathematics and adults career choice is likely to
refer to the former as independent variable and
subsequent career choice as dependent variable,
even though success is not manipulated.
More than One

It is possible to investigate more than one
independent. (and also more than one
dependent variable) in a study. For
simplicity’s sake I present examples in
which only one independent and one
dependent variable are involved.
IT IS POSSIBLE TO INVESTIGATE MORE THAN
ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IN A STUDY

“Will students who are
taught by a team of
three teachers learn
more science than
students taught by one
individual teacher?

What are the
independent variables
and dependent
variables in this
question?
Answers

(The Ind (categorical) variable is the
number of teachers, and the dependent
variable is the amount of science learning.
Notice, again, that the dependent variable is
also the outcome variable in this study).
Can you see why?

Notice that there are two conditions
(sometimes called levels) in the independent
variable –“three teachers” and “one
teacher.” Also notice that the dependent
variable is not “science learning,” but
“amount of science learning.”
Extraneous Variable


A basic problem in research is that there are
many possible independent variables that
could have an effect on dependent variables.
Once researchers have decided which
variables to study, they must be concerned
about the influence or effect of other
variables that exist..
Such variables are usually called
extraneous variables somehow to
eliminate or minimize their effect

Extraneous variables
are independent
variables that have
not been controlled.

Look again at the
research question about
team teaching
presented above. What
might some other
variables that could
have an effect on the
learning of students in a
classroom situation?
Examples of Extraneous Variables
Figure 4.3
19
hold them constant

One way to control extraneous variables is to hold
them constant. For example, if a research were to
include only boys as the subjects of a study, she
would be controlling the variable of gender. We
would say that the gender of the subjects does not
vary; it would be a constant in this study.
control the possible effect

Researchers must continually think about
how they might control the possible effect
(s) of extraneous variables. We will discuss
how to do this in some detail in the Internal
Validity chapter, but for now you need to
make sure you understand the difference
between independent and dependent
variables and to be aware of extraneous
variables.
Try your hand at the following:


“Will students who are taught history by a
teacher of the same gender like the subject
more than students taught by a teacher of a
different gender?
What are the variables?
Answer



(liking for history,
the gender of the teacher.
Possible extraneous variables include the
personality and ability of the teacher (s) involved;
the personality and the ability level of the
students; the materials used, such as textbooks,
etc.; the style of teaching; ethnicity and/or age of
the teacher and students; and others. The
researcher would want to control as many of these
variables as possible).
Families of Variables

Independent Variable: An attribute
or characteristic that influences or
effects an outcome of the independent
variable.




Treatment Variable
Measured Variable
Control Variables
Moderating Variables
Independent versus Dependent
Variables.


Often relational research is an attempt to
demonstrate not just a relationship but a causal
relationship. The existence of a relationship
between the method of counseling employed and
the outcome of counseling suggests that the
method of counseling employed is one of the
causes of the outcome of counseling.
Independent versus Dependent
Variables(cont.)


Effects depend on causes; the values of
effect variables depend on the values of
causal variables.
It is important for you to think that what
is a dependent variable in one study may be
an independent variable in another.
Causes Versus Association

Not all relational research is about causal
relationships. There are non-causal
relationships, as well as relationships in
which cause is in doubt; the term
association or correlation is often used to
refer to such relationships.
Causes Versus Association
(cont.)

Distinguishing between cause and
association can be a serious problem in
research. Often our research methods can
tell us only that variables are associated;
they cannot tell us whether the relationship
is causal.
Proxy Variables


The use of proxy variables is a special case
of associational research
Proxy variables can be useful when true
causal variables are not well understood or
are difficult to measure.
Predictor and Criterion
Variables

Some educational research
is explicitly designed to
provide information about
non-causal associations
between variables
College entrance
examinations and gradepoint averages are a good
example.

When research is done
as a basis for making
such predictions,
research often use
special terms for their
variables.
Predictor and Criterion
Variables (cont.)

What would usually be termed independent
variables are instead labeled predictor variables,
and what would usually be termed dependent
variables are instead criterion variables. When
researchers use these terms they are explicitly
saying that any relationship between variables is
thought to be not causal but simply associational
Families of Variables


Intervening Variables (Mediating
Variables): An attribute or
characteristic that “stands between” the
dependent and independent variables.
Dependent Variables: An attribute
or characteristic influenced by the
independent variable.
Families of Variables

Confounding Variables (Spurious
Variables): Attributes or
characteristics that the researcher
cannot directly measure because their
effects cannot be easily separated from
the other variables, even though they
may influence the relationship between
the independent and the independent
variable.
The Family of Variables in
Quantitative Studies
Probable
Cause
Independent
Variables
•Treatment
•Measured
Effect
Intervening
Variables
Dependent
Variables
Control
Variables
Moderating
Variables
Confounding
Variables
Intervening Variables “Stand Between”
Independent and Dependent Variables
Step 1
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Example Convenient office hours
Student seeks help
from faculty
for students
Step 2
Example
Step 3
Example
Independent
Variable
Variable
Convenient office hours
for students
Independent
Variable
Convenient office hours
for students
Intervening
Variable
Student becomes willing
to take risks
Intervening
Variable
Student becomes willing
to take risks
Dependent
Variable
Student seeks help
from faculty
Different Types of
Explanations in Quantitative
Research
Extensive Tests by
other researchers
Broad
Abstractions
As a formal theory that is expressed by connected
hypotheses and variables identified by authors
As a conceptual framework often expressed as a
visual model by other authors for relationship
As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors
based on studies for relationship
No Test
As explanation posed by the author as a hunch for
why the independent variable relates to the
dependent variable
Narrow
Application
Whether Variables Prove
Probable Cause


Probable causation: The researchers attempt
to establish a likely cause/effect relationship
between variables rather than prove the
relationship.
Control is vital: Control means that the
researcher attempts to study all factors that
might help explain the relationship between
an independent and dependent variable.
Four Types of Probable
Causality
X = independent variable
Y = dependent variable
1. Time: Close in time, not distant
Y
X-Y, not X
2. Space: Close in distance, not distant
X-Y, not X
Y
3. Variation: One goes up, the other down
X
Y, not X Y
3. Multiple Causes: Multiple independent variables
influence the dependent variable
X
X
Y
X
Differences between quantitative and qualitative
purpose statements and research questions
Quantitative - more
Qualitative - more
closed
open-ended
1. Probable cause/Effect (“Why did it
happen?”)
2. Use of theories (Why did it happen
in view of an explanation or
theory?”
3. Assessing differences and magnitude
“How much happened?”
“How many times did it happen?
What were the differences among
groups in what happened?
1. Descriptive (“What happened?”)
2. Interpretive (“What was the
meaning to people of what
happened?”)
3. Process-oriented (“What
happened over time?”)
How researchers explain or predict variables
versus exploring or understanding a Central
Phenomenon
Quantitative
Explaining or
Predicting Variables
X
Y
Qualitative
Understanding or
exploring a
Central
Phenomenon
Y
The independent variable (X)
influences a dependent
variable (Y)
In-depth understanding of Y;
external forces shape and are
shaped by Y
A Single Research Question Can
Suggest Several Hypotheses
Figure 4.4
20
Hypotheses

Relational
research
questions are
usually stated as
hypotheses..

A hypothesis is a
prediction about
the relationship
between two or
more variables,
regarding the
outcomes of a
study
a possible hypothesis
research question followed by its restatement
in the form of a possible hypothesis:


Question: Will
students who are
taught history by a
teacher of the same
gender like the subject
more than students
taught by a teacher of
a different gender?

Hypothesis: Students
taught history by a
teacher of the same
gender will like the
subject more than
students taught history
by a teacher of a
different gender/
a possible hypothesis

Question: How do
teachers feel about
special classes for the
educationally
handicapped?

Hypothesis: Teachers
in XYZ School
District believe that
students attending
special classes for the
educationally
handicapped are
thereby stigmatized.
OR
A possible hypothesis


Hypothesis: Teachers in XYZ School
District believe that special classes for the
educationally handicapped will help such
students improve their academic skills
Many different hypotheses can come from a
single question. As an illustration of this
see this slide
Hypotheses


 people with high
GRE scores will have
higher incomes.
 There will be no
difference in the
dropout rates of
culturally diverse and
Angle children.

Researchers restate their
relational research
questions as hypotheses
because hypotheses can be
subjected to empirical test.
We can change the
question to a prediction
and then find out whether
or not the prediction is
empirically confirmed
Theories as Bridges Between
Independent and Dependent
Variables
Independent
Variables
Dependent
Variables
Directional vs. Nondirectional Hypotheses

A directional
hypothesis is one in
which the specific
direction (such as
higher, lower, more or
less) that a research
expects to emerge in a
relationship is
indicated.

The particular
direction expected is
based on what the
researcher has found
in literature, from
personal experience,
or from the experience
of others.
Directional?

Sometimes it is difficult to make specific
predictions. If a researcher suspects that a
relationship exists, but has no basis for
predicting the direction of the relationship,
she cannot make a directional hypothesis.
Directional vs. Nondirectional Hypotheses
Figure 4.5
21