Contemporary Western Political Ideology
Introduction
I. About the terms of contemporary, modern and ancient.
II. About the term “contemporary western political ideology”: the French Destutt de
Tracy (特拉西，1754一1836), a French Enlightenment aristocrat and
philosopher coined the term “ideology", which means science of ideas, taking
perception as basis of ideas (perception, memory, judgment, volition), in contrast
to "psychological," sides of humanity.
III. About the Contemporary Political ideology by Andrew Vincent (安德鲁·文森特,
Professor of Political Theory, University of Sheffield) : Nature of ideology,
liberalism, conservatism, socialism, anarchism, fascism, feminism, ecologism,
nationalism and iconolatry and iconoclasm.
IV. Concept of “contemporary western political ideology” used in the textbook, see P. 2.
V. Contents of “contemporary western political ideology” defined in the textbook: 1.
Theoretical basis for “contemporary western political ideology”; 2. Basic values;
3. Perspectives on the realistic social and political issues; 4. Opinions about ideal
social and political life, institution, principles and policies; 5. The ways for
realizing an ideal society.
VI. Historicity and regionalism of “contemporary western political
ideology”
VII. Social and historical background for the formation of
“contemporary western political ideology”: 1. Reflection on the
intensification of economic and political contradictions in the liberal
capitalism: Fascism, new liberalism (social liberalism, modern
liberalism against classic liberalism), social democracy, welfare state
and anarchism; 2. Reflection on the postwar society and politics:
Christian democracy; 3. Reflection on the postindustrial society,
economic globalism: New Left, new social movement, ecologism,
feminism; 4. Reverse action against the New Left and civil right
movement: modern conservatism, neo-liberalism, neo-conservatism,
New Right.
VIII. Features of the “contemporary western political ideology”: 1.
Diversity; 2. Focus on capitalist and socialist ideologies; 3. Mutual
conflict, reference and infiltration of various ideologies (conservative
liberalism or center-left, liberal conservatism or center-right).
IX. Guiding principles for studying and doing research on the
“contemporary western political ideology”: assimilate the essence,
reject the dross, and make foreign things serve China.
John Locke
(1632-1704)
Edmund Burke
(1729-1797)
Leonard Trelawny John Bordley Rawls
Hobhouse (1864-1929) (1921-2002)
Samuel P. Huntington György Lukács
(1927-2008)
(1885-1971)
John Stuart Mill Thomas Hill Green John Dewey
(1806-1873)
(1836-1882)
(1859-1952)
Friedrich Hayek
(1899-1992)
Antonio Gramsci
(1891-1937)
Milton Friedman
(1912-2006)
Herbert Marcuse
(1898-1979)
Daniel Bell
(1919-2011)
Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759 -1797)
Chapter One
Liberalism
Section One
Liberalism: An Introduction
I. Formation and development of liberalism: the classic
liberalism, economic liberalism, utilitarianism, new
liberalism, neoliberalism.
1. Bourgeois revolution, Renaissance, Enlightenment, innate
rights of man and natural rights
2. Major scholars: John Locke, Adam Smith, Kant,
Humboldt, Montesquieu, Constant, Tocqueville, John
Mill
3. Principles of classic liberalism: human rights, limited
government, rule by law, representative system, division
of powers, separation of government and religion,
consent of people, decision by majority
4. Utilitarianism: social and individual freedom. The
intermediate between classic liberalism and new
liberalism.
II. The rise of new liberalism
1. Historical background: free capitalism, monopolistic capitalism, welfare states
2. British new liberals (modern or social liberals): Thomas Hill Green (格林, 18361882, an English philosopher, political radical and temperance reformer, and a member of the
British idealism movement, influenced by the metaphysical historicism of G.W.F. Hegel, a
thinkers behind the philosophy of social liberalism; Social union is the indispensable
condition of the development of the special capacities of its individual members), John
Atkinson Hobson (霍布森,1858-1940, an English economist and critic of imperialism,
In The Industrial System,he argued that maldistribution of income led, through oversaving
and underconsumption, to unemployment and that the remedy lay in eradicating the "surplus"
by the redistribution of income through taxation and the nationalization of
monopolies), Leonard Trelawney Hobhouse (霍布豪斯,1864-1929, sociologist
and philosopher, property was acquired not only by individual effort but by societal
organization), B. Bosanquet (博赞克特,1848-1923, an English philosopher and political
theorist, and an influential figure on matters of political and social policy in late 19th and
early 20th century Britain. In Philosophical Theory of the State, he argued that the state is the
real individual and that individual persons are unreal by comparison with it), Ernest
Barker (埃里克-巴克, 1874-1960, a liberal British political scientist). Main viewpoint:
positive liberalism.
3. American new liberals: Herbert Croly (克罗利,1869-1930, in The Promise of American
Life (1909) he looked to the conservative spirit of effective government as espoused by
Alexander Hamilton, combined with the democracy of Thomas Jefferson), John Dewey
(杜威,1859-1952, philosopher, educator and psychologist, most influential to both west and
oriental cultures), Woodrow Wilson (威尔逊，president 1913-21), Franklin
Roosevelt (罗斯福). Main viewpoints: new individualism, social responsibility.
III. Two major kinds of postwar liberalism: New liberalism (Social
Democracy carries out similar policy in Europe); conservative
liberalism.
Economic reforms: Keynesianism, The General Theory of
Employment, Interest and Money；War on poverty and New Frontier
of Kennedy, Great Society of Johnson, Clinton’s and Obama’s third
way; welfare states.
Countertrend: Resurgence of classic liberalism and economic
liberalism expressed by conservative liberalism, liberal conservatism,
neoconservatism, neoliberalism and libertarianism in economics.
Friedrich Hayek，The Road to Serfdom; Berlin, Four Essays on
Liberty; Sartory, The Theory of Democracy Revisited; Oakeshott,
Rationalism in Politics.
Neoliberalism in economics: Laffer’s supply side, Buchanan’s
public choice, Coase’ and Narth’s neo-institutionalism, Nozick’s
justice of holdings, Friedman’s minimal government.
IV. Major differences between conservative liberalism and new
liberalism: Rationalism vs. empiricism, positive liberalism vs.
negative liberalism, governmental interference vs. free market,
democratic participation vs. representative democracy (elitism).
Section Two: New Liberalism
I. New individualism: Old individualism: Locke, Mill, emphasizing
personal rights. New individualism：Dewey, Individualism, Old and
New; Hobhouse, Liberalism; emphasize sociality, social responsibility,
cooperation, be gregarous.
II. Positive liberalism (vs. negative liberalism, Berlin): Green, Liberal
Legislation and Freedom of Contract; emphasizing cooperation and
creativity, winning the rights; Hobhouse: positive state, citizen
freedom, financial freedom, individual freedom, social freedom,
economic freedom, family freedom, national freedom, international
freedom.
III. Governmental interference and welfare state:
Green, Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation: common
good; Hobhouse, Social Evolution and Political Theory, The
Elements of Social Justice: national economic sovereignty, citizen
wage (minimum wage, life wage, maximum Hours); Bosanquet, The
Philosophical Theory of the State: public ownership of land;
Keynes, The End of Laissez-fare: innate freedom and social contract
do not exist; private interests do not conform to social interests; policy
of laissez-fare brings about serious imbalance in distribution, increase
of unemployment and failure of business expectancy.
IV. Justice and fair distribution: A theory of Justice by Rawls
Principles of Justice
First Principle: Liberty
Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total
system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of
liberty for all.
Second Principle: Wealth
Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are
both:
(a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the
just savings principle, and
(b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of
fair equality of opportunity.
V. Pluralist democracy: Robert Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory,
Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy, On Democracy.
A theory of polygarchy (interest group politics) against Madison and
Rousseau; Institution of pluralist democracy (political market);
Defects of the pluralist politics.
Section Three
Conservative Liberalism
I. Value pluralism and the negative liberalism: Isaiah Berlin, Four Essays
on Liberty（《自由四论》）
Different values cannot be commonly measured, so personal freedom
is reasonable; definition of negative liberalism and positive
liberalism; criticism against positive liberalism.
II. Criticism against planned economy and defects of welfare states
Friedrich August Hayek（弗里德里希·奥古斯特·冯·哈耶克）, The
Road to Serfdom (《通往奴役之路》): Economic cycles root in
the changes of investment caused by the changes in credit. The
stagnated inflation of the 1970s resulted from Keynesian policy.
Socialism limited selfish motivation and cannot be efficient.
Planned economy leads to governmental totalitarianism.
Milton Friedman（米尔顿·弗里德曼），Capitalism and Freedom
（《资本主义与自由主义》）, Free to Choice（《自由选择》）
III. Spontaneous order and limited government: Hayek, Law, Legislation
and Liberty（法律、立法与自由》）, The Constitution of Liberty
（《自由秩序原理》）, The Fatal Concept: Or the Errors of
Socialism （《不幸的观念：或社会主义的错误》）: spontaneous
order vs. Artificial order, constructive reason vs. evolutionary reason,
private property is the basis for freedom, fairness and order.
Friedman: Minimal government; free market, competitive capitalism,
return to Adam Smith
IV. Justice of holdings and criticism against justice of distribution: Hayek:
Justice of distribution hinders individual freedom, destroys the rule by
law and spontaneous order of market, criticism against the Universal
Declaration of Human Right and other human right acts.
Robert Nozick (罗伯特·诺齐克), Anarchy, State and Utopia（《无政
府、国家与乌托邦》）: Criticism against Rawls’ difference
principle, justice of acquisition, justice of transfer, return to Locke
（洛克）.
V. Liberal democracy and constitutionalism: Giovanni Sartory（乔万
尼·萨托利）, The Theory of Democracy Revisited（《民主新论》）:
Egalitarianism harms liberty, criticism against big government, return
to constitutional government, liberal democracy. Hayek: Rule by law,
criticism against positive jurisprudence and pluralist democracy, a
constitutional model.
Chapter Two
Social Democracy
Introduction: Liberalism and socialism emerged simultaneously, interosculate and mutually
conflict in the society of capitalism. They are both opposed to conservatism.
The Fabian Society logo of 2008 evoked
Aesop's fable, The Tortoise and the Hare.
Official symbol of
Socialist International
Edward Bernstein
Karl Kautsky
Section One
Historical Development of Social Democracy
I. Socialism and Social Democracy: 1. The early utopian socialism:
Thomas More, Utopia, 1516; Campanella, City of the Sun, 1623
2. The utopian socialism in the early 1800s: Henri Saint-Simon, Joseph
Fourier, Robert Owen. 3. Social democratic movements and thoughts
against the discrimination and unfairness in capitalist democracy and
economy: Demand for a universal suffrage and parliamentary system,
chartist movement (People’s Charter), Louis Blanc (1811-1862),
Proudhon (1809-1865), trade unionism (The British Trade Union
Congress）, AFL, CIO (Congress of Industrial Organization), KOL
(Knights of Labor)), Lassalle (1825-1864, refer to Marx: Critique of
the Gotha Program). 4. Marx, Engels and the Social Democrats
5. Reformism and revisionism: Fabianism, possibilists, Bernstein
(1850-1932), Berne International, Vienna International and Socialist
Workers International (vs. Communist International or Commintern),
Kautsky (1954-1938, Dictatorship of the Proletariat), Blum (18721950, The Popular Front (人民阵线, an alliance of left-wing movements, including the French
Communist Party, the French Section of the Workers' International and the Radical and Socialist Party, during the
interwar period),
French prime minister of 1936-1937, 1938, 1946-1947).
II. From social democracy to democratic socialism
1. Socialist International, Frankfurt Manifesto (1951), Godesberg
Program (1959), Keynesianism, and the first climax of social
democratic ruling (the 1950s, political democracy, economic democracy, social democracy and
international democracy). 2. Nationalization, New Left and the second climax
of social democratic ruling (the mid 1970s). 3. Crisis of welfare states,
resurrection of conservatism, Berlin Program (SDP, 1989) and decline
of democratic socialism. Anthony Crosland, The Future of Socialism;
the Swedish functional socialism (central directive and regulation socialism:
corporatist (fascist) state economics, the running of the country by the state in
cooperation with labor unions and confederations of employers), fund socialism
(employee investment fund)
III. Return to social democracy (background: Reagan, Thatcher)
1. Francis Fukuyama (P.75), The End of History; Thomas Meyer,
Introduction to Democratic Socialism-Social Democracy; “social
democracy” replaces “democratic socialism”. 2. Thomas Meyer,
Transition of Social Democracy; assimilation of social democracy and
neo-liberalism. 3. Setbacks of neo-conservatism, the third way and
the third climax of social democratic ruling: Bill Clinton and Tony
Blaire; Anthony Giddens, The Third Way: the Renewal of Social
Democracy.
Section Two：Defects and Changes of Capitalism
I. Defects of capitalism: 1. Gap of the rich and the poor resulting from
the unrestrained private ownership and free market is in conflict
with the capitalist promise of liberty, equality and universal love.
2. The reason for social democrats’ rejection of socialism (defects of
state-owned and planned economy).
II. New changes in capitalism: 1. Social democrats’ understanding of
capitalism: A. About economic structure; B. About class structure:
new middle class, stock company; C. About economic crisis:
credit, trust, cartel, concern; D. About the poverty of workers. E.
About class struggle: democracy promotes reforms for the benefits
of laborers (labor legislation, trade unionism).
2. Social democrats’ understanding of contemporary capitalism: A. The
nature of capitalist society has been changed (nationalization,
socialization, welfare state, public goods); B. About class structure
and class relationship: managerial revolution, white collar or new
middle class; C. The nature of capitalist state has been changed:
universal suffrage, the state as arbitrator and safeguard for public
interest.
III. Actual social problems: Berlin Program （柏林纲领）, new
privileges, gender inequality, environmental and global economic
issues, defects of welfare states.
Section Three
Basic Values of Social Democracy
I. Ethic foundation of socialism: 1. Return to Kant: Christianity, Hegel,
Bernstein, existentialism, phenomenology, critical rationalism (“I suggest
that the greatest step towards a better and more peaceful world was taken when the war of swords was first supported,
and later sometimes even replaced, by a war of words.”- Karl Popper),
(an
examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The
term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary
criticism.),
(The "back to Kant" movement began in the 1860s, as a reaction to the
materialist controversy in German thought in the 1850s. The Neo-Kantian schools tended to emphasize scientific
readings of Kant, often downplaying the role of intuition in favour of concepts. However the ethical aspects of NeoKantian thought often drew them within the orbit of socialism and they had an important influence on Austromarxism
and the revisionism of Edward Bernstein.);
social critical theory
neo-Kantianism
about Kant’s subjective idealism and
subjectivist ethics.
2. Power of ideas instead of economic necessity: A. Interest as an idea;
B. Relative and utopian knowledge; C. Ethic consciousness or idea of
right as a creative power.
3. Neo-Kantianist ethic socialism: As an absolute order, “man is goal”
is a guideline and value source for socialist ethic; social conditions
and institutions are means for realizing value goals.
II. Basic values of socialism: 1. Liberty: New liberal idea of liberty. 2.
Fairness: Comparable to John Rawls’ theory of justice. 3. Mutual aid:
Expansion of Dewey’s new individualism.
Section four
The Democratic Society of Social Democracy
Frankurt Manifesto: Political democracy, economic democracy, social
democracy and international democracy against capitalist
democracy.
I. Political democracy: A democracy based on human rights and
pluralism. 1. Universal political freedom and democratic rights:
James Harold Wilson (former British prime minister), The
Relevance of British Socialism. 2. Multi-party system. 3. Intraparty democracy. 4. Corruption of west democracy: Den Uyl (Prime
Minister of the Netherlands from 1973-1977). 5. Discursive democracy:
based on deliberative democracy; Anthony Giddens, Politics
beyond the Left and the Right. Democratized democracy (P.76).
II. Economic democracy: Opposed to monopolization of economic power.
Fritz Naphtali, Economic Democracy (1928, Germany). 1. Mixed
economy: Functional Socialism, Fund Socialism or financial
socialism, Giddens’ mixed economy. 2. Social supervision:
distribution of social responsibility, participation of government,
unions in business management, supervision by public opinion.
III. Social democracy: 1. Democracy is a life style; poverty,
oppression, repression and personal dependence in capitalist
society.
2. New liberalist social democracy: Frankfurt Manifesto
(1951), Berlin Program (1989).
3. Social democracy of the third way: A. Positive welfare; B.
Cooperative and tolerant social relationship: Stakeholder; C.
Democratic family: Democratized personal life, love
democracy.
IV. International democracy: 1. International cooperation
against absolute sovereignty.
2. Opposed to any imperialism and oppression and
exploitation against any peoples.
3. Giddens: Transition from nation-states to cosmic states:
border, frontier.
4. Cultural pluralism and uncertain national identity.
5. Cosmic democracy and global governance.
Section Five
The Democratic Way of Social Democracy
I. Consensual revolution or peaceful revolution: Parliamentary
way.
II. The revisionist and reformist understanding of capitalism:
Joop den Uyl (登厄伊尔,Prime Minister of the Netherlands, 1973-1977, member
of the social-democratic Dutch Labour Party or PvdA)，Bruno Kreisky (克莱
斯基,Chancellor of Austria, 1970-1983, Austrian Social Democratic Party)，维
纳尔(无法确认)
III. It is only by their own democratic experience that people
can establish a socialist democratic state; the right to selfdetermination; democracy as a life style.
IV. Peaceful revolution is conditional.
V. New middle class, white collar workers or the intermediate
class as a leading force of the historical motive power in
place of proletariat; Olof Palme (帕尔梅,Sweden Prime Minister,
1968-1976, 1982-1986).