Chapter 1: Basic
Concepts and Methods
Human Development: the scientific study of age-related
changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and personality
ORIGINAL SIN, THE BLANK SLATE, AND INNATE
GOODNESS
Augustine of Hippo
- the Christian doctrine of original sin, often
attributed to 4th-century philosopher Augustine
of Hippo, taught that all humans are born with a
selfish nature
- humans must seek spiritual rebirth and submit
themselves to religious training. Thus, from this
perspective, developmental outcomes, both
good and bad, result from each individual’s
struggle to overcome an inborn tendency to act
immorally when doing so somehow benefits the
self.
John Locke
- drew upon a broad philosophical approach
known as empiricism when he claimed that the
mind of a child is a blank slate
- Empiricism is the view that humans possess no
innate tendencies and that all differences
among humans are attributable to experience.
The blank-slate view suggests that adults can
mold children into whatever they want them to
be.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- was the innate goodness view proposed by
18th-century Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau.
- He claimed that all human beings are naturally
good and seek out experiences that help them
grow
Thus, the innate-goodness and original-sin approaches
share the view that development involves a struggle
between internal and external forces. In contrast to
both, the blank-slate view sees the child as a passive
recipient of environmental influences.
Early Scientific Theories
Charles Darwin
- became well known for his suggestion that the
wide variety of life-forms that exist on the Earth
evolved gradually as a result of the interplay
between environmental factors and genetic
processes
- Darwin proposed that studying children’s
development might help scientists better
understand the evolution of the human species.
To that end, Darwin and other like-minded
scientists kept detailed records of their own
children’s early development (called baby
biographies), in the hope of finding evidence to
support the theory of evolution (Dewsbury,
2009). These were the first organized studies
of human development.
G. Stanley Hall of Clark University
- used questionnaires and interviews to study
large numbers of children
- He thought that developmentalists should
identify norms, or average ages at which
developmental milestones are reached. Norms,
Hall said, could be used to learn about the
evolution of the species as well as to track the
development of individual children.
Arnold Gesell
- suggested the existence of a genetically
programmed sequential pattern of change.
- Gesell used the term maturation to describe
such a pattern of change. He thought that
maturationally determined development
occurred, regardless of practice, training, or
effort
- His findings became the basis for many normreferenced tests that are used today to
determine whether individual children are
developing at a rate that is similar to that of
other children of the same age. Such tests help
early educators find ways of helping young
children whose development lags behind that of
others.
The Lifespan Perspective: (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980)
- lifespan perspective, the idea that important
changes occur during every period of
development and that these changes must be
interpreted in terms of the culture and context
in which they occur
Plasticity:
- Individuals of all ages possess the capacity for
positive change in response to environmental
demands.
Interdisciplinary research:
- Research from different kinds of disciplinary
perspectives (e.g., anthropology, economics,
psychology) is needed to fully understand
lifespan development.
Multicontextual nature of development:
- Individual development occurs within several
interrelated contexts (e.g., family,
neighborhood, culture).
Three broad domain categories:
1. Physical Domain
- n includes changes in the size, shape, and
characteristics of the body. For example,
developmentalists study the physiological
processes associated with puberty.
- Also included in this domain are changes in how
individuals’ sense and perceive the physical
world, such as the gradual development of
depth perception over the first year of life.
2. Cognitive Domain
- Changes in thinking, memory, problem solving,
and other intellectual skills.
- as how children learn to read and why some
memory functions deteriorate in old age. They
also examine the ways in which individual
differences among children and adults, such as
intelligence-test scores, are related to other
variables in this domain.
3. Social Domain
- includes changes in variables associated with
the relationship of an individual to others. For
instance, studies of children’s social skills fall
into the social domain, as does research on
individual differences in personality. Individuals’
beliefs about themselves are also usually
classified within the social domain.
Periods of Development:
1. Prenatal - is the only one that has clearly
defined biological boundaries at its beginning
and end: It begins at conception and ends at
birth.
2. Infancy - begins at birth and ends when children
begin to use language to communicate
3. Early Childhood - begins at birth and ends when
children begin to use language to communicate
a milestone that marks the beginning of early
childhood.
4. Middle Childhood - A social event—the child’s
entrance into school or some other kind of
formal training—marks the transition from early
to middle childhood
5. Adolescence - By contrast, a biological
milestone, puberty, signals the end of middle
childhood and the beginning of adolescence
6. Early Adulthood - the timing of this transition
varies across individuals. And when does
adolescence end? One way of answering this
question is by noting the legal boundaries that
different cultures set for the end of adolescence
and the beginning of early adulthood. For
instance, a person must be 18 years of age to
join the military without parental permission
7. Middle Adulthood - generally thought to occur
around age 40, is even more arbitrary. The
timing of biological milestones that are
associated with middle age, such as
menopause, varies widely from one person to
another.
8. Late Adulthood - though customarily described
as beginning at age 60, is not distinguished by
any biological or social events that clearly
distinguish a middle-aged adult from an older
adult.
Key Issues in the Study of Human Development:
Nature versus Nurture Debate
- Some early developmentalists thought of
change as resulting from either force outside
the person or forces inside the person. The
debate about the relative contributions of
biological processes and experiential factors to
development
Nature
- For example, the concept of inborn biases is
based on the notion that children are born with
tendencies to respond in certain ways. Some of
these inborn biases are shared by virtually all
children.
- Moreover, babies seem to be equipped with a
set of behaviors that entice others to care for
them, including crying, snuggling, and, very
soon after birth, smiling, and they appear to be
delighted when their efforts to arouse interest
in others are successful.
Nurture
- Learning from environmental experiences
-
Internal models of experience
- The key element of this concept is the idea that
the effect of an experience depends not on its
objective properties but rather on the
individual’s interpretation—the meaning that
the individual attaches to that experience.
-
Continuity versus Discontinuity
- The question is whether age-related change is
primarily a matter of amount or degree (the
continuity side of the debate) or of changes in
type or kind (the discontinuity side).
- EXAMPLE: Thus, the continuous aspect of
friendship is that people of all ages have peer
relationships, and the discontinuous aspect of
friendship is that the characteristics of
friendship itself vary by age.
Quantitative Change
- A quantitative change is a change in amount.
For instance, children get taller as they get
older. Their heights increase, but the variable of
height itself never changes. In other words,
height changes continuously; it has continuity
from one age to the next.
Qualitative Change
- Alternatively, a qualitative change is a change in
characteristic, kind, or type.
- For example, puberty is a qualitative change.
Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or degree
Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change
Three Kinds of Change
1. Normative age-graded universal changes
- are universal—that is, they are common to
every individual in a species and are linked to
specific ages. Some universal changes (like a
baby’s first step) happen because we are all
biological organisms subject to a genetically
programmed maturing process.
- A social clock also shapes all (or most) lives into
shared patterns of change (Helson, Mitchell, &
Moane, 1984). In each culture, the social clock,
or age norms, defines a sequence of “normal”
life experiences, such as the right time to go out
on a first date, the appropriate timing of
marriage and childbearing, and the expected
time of retirement
Age norms can lead to ageism—prejudicial
attitudes about older adults, analogous to
sexism or racism.
Older adults are very often perceived as
incompetent. Many are denied opportunities to
work because employers believe that they are
incapable of carrying out required job functions.
Thus, social expectations about the appropriate
age for retirement work together with ageism
to shape individual lives, resulting in a pattern
in which most people retire or significantly
reduce their working hours in later adulthood.
2. Normative history-graded changes
- Equally important as a source of variation in life
experience are historical forces, which affect
each generation somewhat differently.
- Social scientists use the word cohort to describe
a group of individuals who are born within
some fairly narrow span of years and thus share
the same historical experiences at the same
times in their lives. Within any given culture,
successive cohorts may have quite different life
experiences.
3. Non-normative changes
- result from unique, unshared events. One
clearly unshared event in each person’s life is
conception; the combination of genes each
individual receives at conception is unique.
Thus, genetic differences—including physical
characteristics such as body type and hair color
as well as genetic disorders—represent one
category of individual differences.
- Characteristics influenced by both heredity and
environment, such as intelligence and
personality, constitute another class of
individual differences.
- Child development theorists have adopted the
concept of a critical period—the idea is that
there may be specific periods in development
when an organism is especially sensitive to the
presence (or absence) of some particular kind
of experience
- The broader concept of a sensitive period is
more common in the study of human
development. A sensitive period is a span of
months or years during which a child may be
particularly responsive to specific forms of
experience or particularly influenced by their
absence. For example, the period from 6 to 12
months of age may be a sensitive period for the
formation of parent–infant attachment
-
Atypical development is another kind of
individual change. Atypical development (also
known as abnormal behavior, psychopathology,
or maladaptive development) refers to
deviation from a typical, or “normal,”
developmental pathway in a direction that is
harmful to an individual. Examples of atypical
development include intellectual disability,
mental illness, and behavioral problems such as
extreme aggressiveness in children and
compulsive gambling in adults.
Contexts of Development - Vulnerability and Resilience
- According to this view, each child is born with
certain vulnerabilities, such as a tendency
toward emotional irritability or alcoholism, a
physical abnormality, an allergy, or whatever.
Each child is also born with some protective
factors, such as high intelligence, good physical
coordination, an easy temperament, or a lovely
smile, that tend to make her more resilient in
the face of stress
- The combination of a highly vulnerable child
and a poor or unsupportive environment
produces by far the most negative outcomes
- The “double whammy”—being a vulnerable
child in a poor environment—leads to really
poor outcomes for the child. The characteristics
of the larger society in which a child’s family
and neighborhood are embedded matter as
well.
-
-
Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact
with a child’s environment.
Environments cause differential effects.
Resilient children gain support from optimal
environments.
Influences individual development
Interaction between characteristics and
environment influences and is influenced by
gender.
Contexts of Development Origins of Delinquency
Delinquency
- Poor discipline and poor monitoring
- Non-compliant child
- Negative behavior patterns established
- Rejection by peers and school difficulty
- Push toward delinquency
Research Methods and Designs
The Goals of Developmental Science
1. Describe development - To describe
development is simply to state what happens.
2. Explain development - development involves
telling why a particular event occurs. To
generate explanations, developmentalists rely
on theories—sets of statements that propose
general principles of development
3. Predict developmental event - researchers can
test, such as “If changes in the brain cause
declines in memory function, then elderly
adults whose brains show the most change
should also make the greatest number of
memory errors.” To test this hypothesis, we
would have to measure some aspects of brain
structure or function as well as memory
function. Then we would have to find a way to
relate one to the other.
4. developmental scientists hope to use their
findings to influence developmental outcomes.
Descriptive Methods
Variables
- are characteristics that vary from person to
person, such as physical size, intelligence, and
personality
Relationship: when two or more variables vary together
Naturalistic Observations
- the process of studying people in their normal
environments
- The weakness of naturalistic observation,
however, is observer bias. Because of observer
bias, naturalistic observation studies often use
“blind” observers who don’t know what the
research is about. In most cases, for the sake of
accuracy, researchers use two or more
observers so that the observations of each
observer can be checked against those of the
other(s).
- EXAMPLE: if the researcher who is observing
older adults is convinced that most of them
have poor memories, he is likely to ignore any
behavior that goes against this view
- Naturalistic observation studies are limited in
the extent to which the results can be
generalized.
- In addition, naturalistic observation studies are
very time-consuming. They must be repeated in
a variety of settings so that researchers can be
sure people’s behavior reflects development
and not the influences of a specific
environment.
Case Studies
- In-depth examination of a single individual
- Such a study might tell us a lot about the
stability or instability of memory in the
individual studied, but we wouldn’t know if our
findings applied to others.
- Still, case studies are extremely useful in making
decisions about individuals.
- Case studies are also frequently the basis of
important hypotheses about unusual
developmental events, such as head injuries
and strokes.
Laboratory Observations
- differs from naturalistic observation in that the
researcher exerts some degree of control over
the environment.
- As you can see, observing cheating behavior
under controlled conditions offers many
advantages over trying to identify and track it in
an actual classroom
- Controlled setting for study
Surveys
- a study in which researchers use interviews
and/or questionnaires to collect data about
attitudes, interests, values, and various kinds of
behaviors.
- Surveys allow researchers to quickly gather
information. They can also be used to track
changes over time
- The value of any survey depends entirely on
how representative the sample of participants
is of the researcher’s population of interest.
- A population is the entire group about which
the researcher is attempting to learn
something; a sample is a subset of that group.
- EXAMPLE: Thus, when voters are asked which
candidate they prefer, the population of
interest is all the people who will vote in the
election. The sample includes only the people
who are actually questioned by the researchers.
If the sample is not a representative sample—
that is, if it does not include the same
proportions of males, females, Democrats,
Republicans, and so forth, as the actual voting
population does—then the survey’s results will
be inaccurate.
Correlations
- is a relationship between two variables that can
be expressed as a number ranging from −1.00
to +1.00.
- zero correlation indicates that there is no
relationship between the two variables.
- A positive correlation means that high scores
on one variable are usually accompanied by
high scores on the other.
- The closer a positive correlation is to +1.00, the
stronger the relationship between the variables.
- Two variables that change in opposite
directions have a negative correlation, and the
nearer the correlation is to −1.00, the more
strongly the two are connected.
Limitations of Correlations
- Correlation is NOT causality.
- Correlations measure the level or degree of
covariation between two variables.
- They do not prove causal relationships.
The Experimental Method
- An experiment is a study that tests a causal
hypothesis.
- A key feature of an experiment is that
participants are assigned randomly to one of
two or more groups. In other words, chance
determines which group each participant is
placed in. The groups then have equal amounts
of variation with respect to characteristics such
as intelligence, personality traits, height,
weight, and health status. Consequently, none
of these variables can affect the outcome of the
experiment.
- Participants in the experimental group receive
the treatment the experimenter thinks will
produce a particular effect, while those in the
control group receive either no special
treatment or a neutral treatment.
- The presumed causal element in the
experiment is called the independent variable,
and the characteristic or behavior that the
independent variable is expected to affect is
called the dependent variable.
- quasi-experiments, in which they compare
groups without assigning the participants
randomly. Quasi-experiments are studies in
which researchers compare members of
naturally occurring groups that differ in some
dimension of interest
Designs to Study Age-Related Changes
Cross-Sectional Designs
- a research design in which groups of people of
different ages are compared
- People studied from different age groups at
same time point
- Can indicate possible age differences or age
changes
- But age-related differences may become
confused with cohort or generational effects.
Birth Cohort or Generational Effects
- Different generations have unique experiences.
- Cohort and generational effects can become
entangled.
Longitudinal Designs
- One of the most famous of these is the
Berkeley/Oakland Growth Study
- Perhaps equally famous is the Grant study of
Harvard men - ). This study followed several
hundred men from age 18 until they were in
their 60s.
Longitudinal Designs: Some Problems
- Practice or testing affect - Such practice effects
may distort the measurement of any underlying
developmental changes.
- Another significant problem is that some
participants drop out, die, or move away.
Sequential Designs
- Combined groups from at least two cohorts
followed in a longitudinal study
- Comparison of cohorts while incorporating
some degree of individual differences
- Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.
Cross-Cultural Research: Ethnographies
- an ethnography is a detailed description of a
single culture or context, based on extensive
observation. Often the observer lives in the
culture or context for a period of time, perhaps
as long as several years. Each ethnographic
study is intended to stand alone, although
sometimes we can combine information from
several different studies to see whether similar
developmental patterns exist in the various
cultures or contexts.
- In-depth descriptions of single culture or
context
- May compare two or more cultures or
subcultures
-
Can provide both descriptive and interpretive
information
Research Ethics
Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible conduct
of research and use of any outcomes resulting from
research
In Research:
Protection of animal rights and human subjects
Universities, government, and organizations often
have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).
Research Ethics
Protection from harm - It is unethical to do research
that may cause participants permanent physical or
psychological harm
Informed consent - Researchers must inform
participants of any possible harm and have them sign a
consent form stating that they are aware of the risks of
participating
Confidentiality - Participants have the right to
confidentiality. Researchers must keep the identities of
participants confidential and must report their data in
such a way that no particular piece of information can
be associated with any specific participant
Knowledge of result - Participants, their parents, and
the administrators of institutions in which research
takes place have a right to a written summary of a
study’s results
Deception - If deception has been a necessary part of
a study, participants have the right to be informed
about the deception as soon as the study is over.
Chapter 2: Theories of
Development
Psychoanalytic Theories: Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions
influence behavior. Patent memories used as primary
source material
-
-
id in Freud’s theory, the part of the personality
that comprises a person’s basic sexual and
aggressive impulses; it contains the libido and
motivates a person to seek pleasure and avoid
pain
ego according to Freud, the thinking element of
personality
-
superego Freud’s term for the part of
personality that is the moral judge
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
STAGE: Oral
AGE: Birth to 1 year
FOCUS OF LIBIDO: Mouth, Lips, Tongue
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL TASK: Wearing
FIXATION: Oral gratification from sucking, eating, and
biting, Optimism, gullibility, dependency, pessimism,
passivity, hostility, sarcasm, aggression
STAGE: Anal
AGE: (1 to 3 years)
FOCUS OF LIBIDO: Anus
MAJOR DEELOPMENTAL TASK: Toilet training
FIXATION: Gratification from expelling and withholding
feces, Excessive cleanliness, orderliness, stinginess,
messiness, repetitiousness, destructiveness
STAGE: Phallic
AGE: (3 to 5 or 6 years)
FOCUS OF LIBIDO: Genitals
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL TASK: Resolving
Oedipus/Electra conflict
FIXATION: Sexual curiosity, Masturbation,
Flirtatiousness, vanity, promiscuity, pride, chastity
STAGE: Latency
AGE: 5 or 6 to puberty
FOCUS OF LIBIDO: None
MAJOR DELVELOPMENTAL TASK: Developing defense
mechanism; identifying with same sex partners
FIXATION: none
STAGE: Genital
AGE: 12 years
FOCUS OF LIBIDO: Genitals
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL TASK: Achieving mature
sexual intimacy
FIXATION: Adults who have successfully integrated
earlier stages should emerge with sincere interest in
others and mature sexuality
Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Stage
Ages
Description
Birth to 1
year
HOPE: Infants learn to
trust or mistrust
depending on the degree
and regularity of care,
love and affection
provided by parents or
caregivers.
1 to 3 years
WILL: Children learn to
express their will and
independence, to
exercise some control,
and to make choices. If
not, they experience
shame and doubt.
3 to 6 years
PURPOSE: Children begin
to initiate activates, to
plan and undertake
tasks, and to enjoy
developing motor and
other abilities. If not
allowed to initiate or if
made to feel stupid and
considered a nuisance,
they may develop a
sense of guilt.
Industry vs.
Inferiority
6 years to
puberty
COMPETENCE; Children
develop industriousness
and feel pride in
accomplishing tasks,
making things, and doing
things. If not encouraged
of if rebuffed by parents
and teachers, they may
develop a sense of
inferiority.
Identity vs.
Role
confusion
FIDELITY: Adolescents
must make the transition
from childhood to
adulthood, establish an
Adolescence identity, develop a sense
of self, and consider a
future occupational
identity. Otherwise, role
confusion can result.
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Young
adulthood
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Autonomy
vs. Shame
and doubt
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Psychosocial theory: Development influenced by
common cultural demands and internal drives
■ Each psychosocial stage requires solution of a crisis.
■ Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of
positve to negative experiences.
LOVE: Young adults must
develop intimacy – the
ability to share with, care
for, and commit
themselves to another
person. Avoiding
intimacy brings a sense
of isolation and
loneliness.
Generativity
Middle
vs.
adulthood
Stagnation
CARE: Middle-aged
people must find some
way of contributing to
the development of the
next generation. Failing
this, they may become
self-absorbed and
emotionally
impoverished and reach
a point of stagnation.
Ego integrity Late
vs. despair
adulthood
WISDOM: Individuals
review their lives, and if
they are satisfied and
feel a sense of
accomplishment, they
will experience ego
integrity. If dissatisfied,
they may sink into
despair.
Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
- Each incidence of learning begins with a
biologically programmed stimulus–response
connection, or reflex.
- Classical Conditioning: Learning process that
occurs through associations between
environmental stimulus and naturally occurring
stimulus
- Reflex: Stimulus–response connection
- Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits
conditioned response.
-
-
follows a behavior and increases the chances
that the behavior will occur again.
o For example, if you buy a scratch ticket
and win $100, you will probably be
more willing to buy another ticket in
the future than you would if you hadn’t
won the money
Negative reinforcement occurs when an
individual learns to perform a specific behavior
in order to cause something unpleasant to stop.
o For example, coughing is an unpleasant
experience for most of us, and taking a
dose of cough medicine usually stops it.
As a result, when we begin coughing,
we reach for the cough syrup. The
behavior of swallowing a spoonful of
cough syrup is reinforced by the
cessation of coughing.
An alternative way to stop an unwanted
behavior is extinction, which is the gradual
elimination of a behavior through repeated
nonreinforcement. If a teacher succeeds in
eliminating a student’s undesirable behavior by
ignoring it, the behavior is said to have been
extinguished.
Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura
Observational learning or modeling - Learning may also
occur as a result of watching someone else perform
some action and experience reinforcement or
punishment.
Dependent on four factors:
- Attention
- Memory
- Physical capabilities
- Motivation
Social Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about their
capabilities to produce effects
Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
Cognitive Theories
Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning involves
learning to repeat or stop behaviors because of the
consequences they bring about
- Reinforcement is anything that follows a
behavior and causes it to be repeated.
- Punishment is anything that follows a behavior
and causes it to stop.
- A positive reinforcement is a consequence
(usually involving something pleasant) that
Cognitive Developmental Theory - Jean Piaget
Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development involves
processes based upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations.
Scheme
- A pivotal idea in Piaget’s model is that of a
scheme, an internal cognitive structure that
-
-
provides an individual with a procedure to
follow in a specific circumstance
Piaget proposed that each of us begins life with
a small repertoire of sensory and motor
schemes, such as looking, tasting, touching,
hearing, and reaching.
Piaget proposed that each of us begins life with
a small repertoire of sensory and motor
schemes, such as looking, tasting, touching,
hearing, and reaching.
Assimilation is the process of using schemes to make
sense of experiences. Piaget would say that a baby who
grasps a toy is assimilating it to his grasping scheme.
The complementary process is accommodation, which
involves changing the scheme as a result of some new
information acquired through assimilation. When the
baby grasps a square object for the first time, he will
accommodate his grasping scheme; the next time he
reaches for a square object, his hand will be more
appropriately bent to grasp it. Thus, the process of
accommodation is the key to developmental change.
Through accommodation, we improve our skills and
reorganize our ways of thinking.
Equilibration is the process of balancing assimilation
and accommodation to create schemes that fit the
environment. To illustrate, think about infants’
tendency to put things in their mouths.
Cognitive Developmental Stages
1. sensorimotor stage, from birth to 18 months,
infants use their sensory and motor schemes to
act on the world around them.
2. In the preoperational stage, from 18 months to
about age 6, youngsters acquire symbolic
schemes, such as language and fantasy, that
they use in thinking and communicating.
3. Next comes the concrete operational stage,
during which 6- to 12-year-olds begin to think
logically and become capable of solving
problems
4. The last phase is the formal operational stage,
in which adolescents learn to think logically
about abstract ideas and hypothetical
situations.
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of thinking have
their origins in social interactions, not private
explorations.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Vygotsky used this term to signify tasks that are
too hard for the child to do alone but that he
can manage with guidance. For example,
parents of a beginning reader provide a scaffold
when they help him sound out new words.
Scaffolding
- Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a
more skilled partner or adult, who structures
the child’s learning experience. To create an
appropriate scaffold, the adult must gain and
keep the child’s attention, model the best
strategy, and adapt the whole process to the
child’s developmental level, or zone of proximal
development.
Information-Processing Theory
Information-processing theory: is to explain how the
mind manages information memory processes are
central to information-processing theory. Most memory
research assumes that the human memory is made up
of multiple components. The idea is that information
moves through these components in an organized way.
Three-stage theory of memory
- Sensory memory - Your experiences with
language allow you to recognize the pattern of
sounds as a word.
- Short-term or working memory - the
component of the memory system where all
information is processed. Thus, short-term
memory is often called working memory
- Long-term memory - Knowledge of the word’s
meaning is then called up out of long-term
memory, the component of the system where
information is permanently stored, and placed
in short-term memory, where it is linked to the
word’s sounds to enable you to understand it.
Biological and Ecological Theories
Behavioral genetics: focuses on the effect of heredity
on individual differences. Traits or behaviors are
believed to be influenced by genes when those of
related people, such as children and their parents, are
more similar than those of unrelated people. Behavior
geneticists have shown that heredity affects a broad
range of traits and behaviors, including intelligence,
shyness, and aggressiveness.
Ethology and Sociobiology
Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms
that promote survival through natural selection
- Ethologists emphasize genetically determined
survival behaviors that are assumed to have
evolved through natural selection. For example,
nests are necessary for the survival of young
birds. Therefore, ethologists say, evolution has
equipped birds with nest-building genes
Imprinting
- One such relationship results from a process
called imprinting, in which newborns of some
species learn to recognize the characteristics of
a protective organism within the first hours of
life.
Sociobiology: the study of society using the methods
and concepts of biology; when used by
developmentalists, an approach that emphasizes genes
that aid group survival
“Genetic selfishness”
Bioecological Theory: Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bioecological theory: Explains development in terms of
relationships between people and their environments
- explains development in terms of relationships
between people and their environments, or
contexts
Macro-system
- The outermost circle, the macrosystem (the
cultural context), contains the values and
beliefs of the culture in which a child is growing
up. For example, a society’s beliefs about the
importance of education exist in the cultural
context
Exosystem
- the exosystem (the socioeconomic context),
includes the institutions of the culture that
affect children’s development indirectly. For
example, funding for education exists in the
socioeconomic context. The citizens of a specific
nation may strongly believe that all children
should be educated (cultural context), but their
ability to provide universal education may be
limited by the country’s wealth (socioeconomic
context).
Microsystem
-
microsystem (the immediate context) includes
those variables to which people are exposed
directly, such as their families, schools, religious
institutions, and neighborhoods.
Mesosystem
- The mesosystem is made up of the
interconnections between these components.
For example, the specific school a child attends
and her own family are part of the microsystem
Biological context
- the child’s genetic makeup and developmental
stage—her biological context—also influence
her development. For example, a student who
hasn’t mastered the skill of reading isn’t likely
to benefit from an enriched literature program.
Thus, her culture, the socioeconomic situation,
the school she attends, and her own family may
all be geared toward providing a quality
education
Chapter 3: Prenatal
Development and Birth
Process of conception
Ordinarily, a woman produces one ovum (egg cell) per
month from one of her two ovaries, roughly midway
between menstrual periods. If the ovum is not fertilized,
it travels from the ovary down the fallopian tube
toward the uterus, where it gradually disintegrates and
is expelled as part of the menstrual fluid. However, if a
couple has intercourse during the crucial few days when
the ovum is in the fallopian tube, one of the millions of
sperm ejaculated as part of each male orgasm may
travel the full distance through the woman’s vagina,
cervix, uterus, and fallopian tube and penetrate the wall
of the ovum.
Chromosomes, DNA and Genes
every cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, or strings of genetic material. However,
sperm and ovum, collectively called gametes, contain
23 single (unpaired) chromosomes. At conception,
chromosomes in the ovum and the sperm combine to
form 23 pairs in an entirely new cell called a zygote.
Chromosomes are composed of molecules of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Each chromosome can be
further subdivided into segments, called genes, each of
which influences a particular feature or developmental
pattern. A gene controlling some specific characteristic
always appears in the same place (the locus) on the
same chromosome in every individual of the same
species. For example, the locus of the gene that
determines whether a person’s blood is type A, B, or O
is on chromosome 9
Determination of Sex
Twenty-two pairs of chromosomes, called autosomes,
contain most of the genetic information for the new
individual. The twenty-third pair, the sex
chromosomes, determines the sex. One of the two sex
chromosomes, the X chromosome, is one of the largest
chromosomes in the body and carries a large number
of genes. The other, the Y chromosome, is quite small
and contains only a few genes. Zygotes containing two
X chromosomes develop into females (XX), and those
containing one X and one Y chromosome develop into
males (XY). Since the cells in a woman’s body contain
only X chromosomes, all her ova carry X chromosomes.
Half of a man’s sperm contain X chromosomes; the
other half contain Y chromosomes.
Chromosomal differences
Sometime between 4 and 8 weeks following
conception, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome signals
the male embryo’s body to begin secreting hormones
called androgens. These hormones cause male genitals
to develop. If androgens are not present, female
genitals develop no matter what the embryo’s
chromosomal status is. Likewise, female embryos that
are exposed to androgens, either via medications that
the mother is taking or a genetic disorder called
congenital adrenal hyperplasia, can develop maleappearing external genitalia. Development of the
gonads—testes in males and ovaries in females—also
depends upon the presence or absence of androgens.
Prenatal androgens also influence the developing brain
and may play a role in the development of sex
differences in cognitive functioning and in the
development of sexual orientation
Multiple Births
Two-thirds of twins are fraternal twins, or twins that
come from two sets of ova and sperm. Such twins, also
called dizygotic twins (meaning that they originate
from two zygotes), are no more alike genetically than
any other pair of siblings, and need not even be of the
same sex. The remaining one-third of twins are
identical twins (monozygotic, or arising from one
zygote).
How Genes Influence Development
Genotype: Genetc blueprint
Phenotype: Observable characteristcs
- At conception, the genes from the father
contained in the sperm and those from the
mother in the ovum combine to create a unique
genetic blueprint—the genotype—that
characterizes the new individual.
- The phenotype is the individual’s whole set of
actual characteristics. For example, you can
easily see that a woman has brown eyes, which
are part of her phenotype. Her genotype,
though, can’t be so easily determined. In many
cases, you have to know her parents’ and
offsprings’ eye color to find out whether she
carries genes for another eye color, because
complex rules govern the way genotypes
influence phenotypes
Dominant–recessive pattern
The simplest genetic rule is the dominant–recessive
pattern, in which a single dominant gene strongly
influences phenotype
People whose chromosomes carry either two dominant
or two recessive genes are referred to as homozygous.
Those with one dominant and one recessive gene are
said to be heterozygous
Polygenic inheritance
With polygenic inheritance, many genes influence the
phenotype. There are many polygenic traits in which
the dominant–recessive pattern is also at work.
- EXAMPLE: Skin Color, Eye Color
Other Types of Inheritance
Genomic imprinting: is a chemical label that identifies
each gene in a person’s body as having come from his
father or mother
Mitochondrial inheritance: Genes in mitochondria,
children inherit genes that are carried in structures
called mitochondria, which are found in the fluid that
surrounds the nucleus of the ovum before it is fertilized.
Consequently, mitochondrial genes are passed only
from mother to child. Geneticists have learned that
several serious disorders, including some types of
blindness, are transmitted in this way
Multi-Factorial Inheritance (MFI)
MFI: Inheritance affected by genes and environment
Example: HEIGHT
Similarly, many neurodevelopmental disorders, a group
of conditions in which individuals’ neurological
development follows an atypical pattern, result from
multifactorial inheritance.
Neurodevelopmental disorders include conditions such
as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Autosomal Disorders
Autosomal gene: One of 22 pairs of autosomes that are
involved in sex determination
- are caused by genes located on the autosomes
(chromosomes other than sex chromosomes).
The genes that cause sex-linked disorders are
found on the X chromosome
Autosomal Recessive Disorders - 2 copies of the
abnormal gene must be present for the disease or trait
to develop.
- phenylketonuria (PKU)
o Toxins build up in the baby’s brain and
cause intellectual disability. PKU babies
can’t have milk and some other foods,
so early diagnosis is critical. For this
reason, most states require all babies to
be tested for PKU soon after birth
- sickle-cell disease, a recessive disorder that
causes red blood cell deformities. In sickle-cell
disease, the blood can’t carry enough oxygen to
keep the body’s tissues healthy
- Tay-Sachs disease - About 1 in every 3,000
babies born to Jewish couples of Eastern
European ancestry has another recessive
disorder, By the time she is 1 to 2 years old, a
Tay-Sachs baby is likely to have severe
intellectual disability and be blind.
Autosomal dominant disorder: abnormal gene from 1
parent sufficient to inherit disease or trait
- Huntington’s disease, are usually not diagnosed
until adolescence or adulthood.
o This disorder causes the brain to
deteriorate and affects both
psychological and motor functions.
Sex-Linked Disorders
Sex-linked disorders: Caused by recessive gene on X
chromosome
Red-Green Colorblindness
- People with this disorder have difficulty
distinguishing between the colors red and green
when these colors are adjacent. About 1 in 800
men and 1 in 400 women have this disorder.
Most learn ways of compensating for the
disorder and thus live perfectly normal lives
Hemophilia
- The blood of people with hemophilia lacks the
chemical components that cause blood to clot.
- Thus, when a person with hemophilia bleeds,
the bleeding doesn’t stop naturally.
- Approximately 1 in 5,000 baby boys is born with
this disorder, which is almost unknown in girls
Fragile X Syndrome
- About 1 in every 4,000 males and 1 in every
8,000 females have a sex-linked disorder called
fragile-X syndrome.
- A person with this disorder has an X
chromosome with a “fragile,” or damaged, spot.
Fragile-X syndrome can cause intellectual
disability that becomes progressively worse as a
child gets older.
Chromosomal Errors
- A variety of problems can occur when a child
has too many or too few chromosomes, a
condition referred to as a chromosomal error,
or chromosomal anomaly. Like genetic
disorders, these errors are distinguished by
whether they involve autosomes or sex
chromosomes.
Trisomy’s: A trisomy is a condition in which a child has
three copies of a specific autosome.
The most common is trisomy 21, or Down syndrome,
- in which the child has three copies of
chromosome 21. Roughly 1 in every 800–1,000
infants is born with this abnormality. These
children have intellectual disability, distinctive
facial features, undersized brains, and are at
high risk for other physical abnormalities such
as heart defects
- The risk of bearing a child with trisomy 21 is
greatest for mothers over 35. Among women
aged 35–39, the incidence of Down syndrome is
about 1 in 385 births. Among those over 45, it is
as high as 1 in 30 births
Monosomies: Absence of one member of chromosome
pair
Chromosomal Errors Sex: Chromosome Anomalies
XXY: Klinefelter’s syndrome
- The most common is an XXY pattern, called
Klinefelter’s syndrome, which occurs in 1 out
This child shows the distinctive facial features of
a child with Down syndrome. CHAPTER 3 ▸
Development from Conception to Birth 79 of
every 500 males.
- Affected boys usually look no different than
their peers but have underdeveloped testes
and, as adults, very low sperm production.
Many have language and learning disabilities. At
puberty, these boys experience both male and
female changes. For example, their penises
enlarge, and their breasts develop.
■ XO: Turner’s syndrome
- A single-X pattern (XO), called Turner’s
syndrome, may also occur. Individuals with
Turner’s syndrome are anatomically female but
show stunted growth. They are also at higher
risk than others of having malformations of
internal organs such as the heart and kidneys
■ XXX: girls with an extra X
■ XYY: boys with an extra Y
Pregnancy and Prenatal Development:
The Mother’s Experience: First Trimester
- Zygote implants in the uterus
- Cervix thickness and secrets mucus to protect
embryo
- Uterus shifts and puts pressure on bladder
- Missed period breast enlargement
Care
• Regular prenatal care critical at this time
Problems
• Ectopic pregnancy, bleeding, miscarriage
The Mother’s Experience: Second Trimester
- Weight gain
- “Showing”
- Fetal movements felt
- Increased appetite
Care
•
•
Monthly doctor visits continue
Ultrasound
Problems
- Gestatonal diabetes; Rh incompatbility;
increased blood pressure
■ Miscarriage; premature labor
The Mother’s Experience: Third Trimester
- Colostrum in preparaton for nursing
- Emotonal connecton between mother and baby
grows
- Fetal hiccups and thumb-sucking visible on
sonogram
- Fetus has regular actvity and rest periods
Care
-
Weekly visits (beginning in 32nd week)
Ultrasound to assess positon, pelvic exam to
check cervical dilaton
Problems
- Increased blood pressure, bleeding, bladder
infection
- Premature labor
The Prenatal Experience: Germinal Stage
With the cephalocaudal pattern, development
proceeds from the head down. For example, the brain is
formed before the reproductive organs. With the
proximodistal pattern, development happens in an
orderly way from the center of the body outward to the
extremities. In other words, structures closer to the
center of the body, such as the rib cage, develop before
the fingers and toes.
The first 2 weeks of gestation, from conception to
implantation, constitute the germinal stage. During this
stage, cells specialize into those that will become the
fetus’s body and those that will become the structures
needed to support its development. Cell division
happens rapidly, and by the 4th day, the zygote
contains dozens of cells. On day 5, the cells become a
hollow, fluid-filled ball called a blastocyst. Inside the
blastocyst, cells that will eventually become the embryo
begin to clump together. On day 6 or 7, the blastocyst
comes into contact with the uterine wall, and by the
12th day, it is completely buried in the uterine tissue, a
process called implantation. Some of the cells of the
blastocyst’s outer wall combine with cells of the uterine
lining to begin creating the placenta, an organ that
allows oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to be
transferred between the mother’s and baby’s blood.
The placenta’s specialized structures bring the mother’s
and baby’s blood close to each other without allowing
them to mix. Like the zygote, the placenta secretes
chemical messages (hormones) that stop the mother’s
menstrual periods and keep the placenta connected to
the uterus. Other placental hormones allow the bones
of the woman’s pelvis to become more flexible, induce
breast changes, and increase the mother’s metabolism
rate. At the same time, the blastocyst’s inner cells begin
to specialize. One group of cells will become the
umbilical cord, the organ that connects the embryo to
the placenta. Vessels in the umbilical cord carry blood
from the baby to the mother and back again. Other cells
will form the yolk sac, a structure that produces blood
cells until the embryo’s blood-cell-producing organs are
formed. Still others will become the amnion, a fluidfilled sac in which the baby floats until just before it is
born. By the 12th day, the cells that will become the
embryo’s body are also formed.
The Prenatal Experience: Embryonic Stage
- The embryonic stage begins at implantation,
approximately 2 weeks after conception, and
continues until the end of week 8. By the time
many women first suspect a pregnancy, usually
3 weeks after conception, the embryo’s cells
are starting to specialize and come together to
form the foundations of all the body’s organs.
For example, the cells of the nervous system,
the neurons, form a structure called the neural
tube, from which the brain and spinal cord will
develop.
- A primitive heart and the forerunners of the
kidneys also develop during week 3, along with
three sacs that will become the digestive
system.
- In week 4, the end of the embryo’s neural tube
swells to form the brain. Spots that will become
the eyes appear on the embryo’s head, and its
heart begins to beat. The backbone and ribs
become visible as bone and muscle cells move
into place. The face starts to take shape, and
the endocrine system begins to develop.
- By week 5, the embryo is about 1/4 inch long,
10,000 times larger than the zygote. Its arms
and legs are developing rapidly. Five fingers are
visible on its hands. Its eyes have corneas and
lenses, and its lungs are beginning to develop.
- In week 6, the embryo’s brain begins to
produce patterns of electrical activity and it
moves in response to stimuli.
- During week 7, embryos begin to move
spontaneously (Joseph, 2000). They have visible
skeletons and fully developed limbs. The bones
are beginning to harden and the muscles are
maturing; by this point, the embryo can
maintain a semi-upright posture. The eyelids
seal shut to protect the developing eyes. The
-
ears are completely formed, and x-rays can
detect tooth buds in the jawbones.
During the last week of the embryonic stage,
week 8, the liver and spleen begin to function.
These organs allow the embryo to make and
filter its own blood cells. Its heart is well
developed and efficiently pumps blood to every
part of the body. The embryo’s movements
increase as the electrical activity in its brain
becomes more organized. Connections between
the brain and the rest of the body are also well
established. The embryo’s digestive and urinary
systems are functioning. By the end of week 8,
organogenesis—the technical term for organ
development—is complete.
The Prenatal Experience: Fetal Stage
The final phase is the fetal stage, which begins at the
end of week 8 and continues until birth. The fetus grows
from a weight of about 1/4 ounce and a length of 1 inch
to a baby weighing about 7 pounds and having a length
of about 20 inches, who is ready to be born. In addition,
this stage involves refinements of the organ systems
that are essential to life outside the womb.
THE FETAL BRAIN
- But the pace of neural formation picks up
dramatically between the 10th and 18th weeks,
a process known as neuronal proliferation.
Between the 13th and 21st weeks, the newly
formed neurons migrate to the parts of the
brain where they will reside for the rest of the
individual’s life (Johnson, 2011). While
migrating, neurons consist only of cell bodies,
the part of the cell that contains the nucleus
- These connections—tiny spaces between
neurons across which neural impulses travel
from one neuron to the next—are called
synapses. Several changes in fetal behavior
signal that the process of synapse formation is
underway
- Synapse formation requires the growth of two
neuronal structures. Axons are taillike
extensions that can grow to be several feet in
length. Dendrites are tentaclelike branches that
extend out from the cell body (see Figure 3.3).
Dendrite development is thought to be highly
sensitive to adverse environmental influences
such as maternal malnutrition and defects in
placental functioning (Dieni & Rees, 2003).
Simultaneously with neuronal migration, glial
cells begin to develop. These cells are the
“glue” that hold the neurons together to give
shape to the brain’s major structures. The brain
now begins to assume a more mature
appearance, which can be observed using
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
.
Sex Differences
Males
■ More physically actve
■ Higher rates of miscarriage
■ More vulnerable to prenatal problems
Females
■ More sensitve to external stmulaton
■ More rapid skeletal development
Some researchers suggest:
Sex differences in:
• Prenatal hormones linked to cross-gender variatons
• Prenatal problems
Prenatal Behavior: Introducing the Amazing Fetus!
■ Fetuses can differentate between familiar and novel
stmuli by 32 to 33 weeks.
■ Newborns can remember prenatal stmuli and react
accordingly.
■ Very actve fetuses tend to be actve children who can
be labeled “hyperactve” later on.
Problems in Prenatal Development: Teratogens
Teratogens: substance that can damage embryo
First 8 weeks most dangerous exposure tme
Greatest damage during organ system’s most rapid
development
Duraton and intensity exposure important
Figure 3.7 Timing of Teratogen Exposure
Problems in Prenatal Development Teratogens: Drugs
■ Prescription
■ Over-the-counter drugs
■ Marijuana, methamphetamine, and heroin
■ Cocaine
■ Tobacco
■ Alcohol
Problems in Prenatal Development: Teratogens:
Maternal Diseases
■ Rubella (“German measles”)
■ HIV
■ Other sexually transmitted diseases
Problems in Prenatal Development: Other Maternal
Infuences: Diet
Folic acid deficiencies
Malnutrition
■ Neonate low birth weight
■ Brain stuntng
■ Fetal death
■ Mental illness in adulthood
Problems in Prenatal Development: Other Maternal
Infuences: Age
■ First pregnancies are occurring later— average age is
now 25.1 years.
■ Women over 35 have higher risks for pregnancy
complicatons.
■ Teenage mothers have higher risks during and afer
birth.
Problems in Prenatal Development: Other Maternal
Infuences: Chronic Illnesses
Kinds of illness
■ Depression
■ Epilepsy
■ Diabetes
■ Lupus
Prevention
■ Monitoring of mother and fetus necessary for most
illnesses
■ Fetal–maternal specialist for high-risk patent
Problems in Prenatal Development: Environmental
Hazards
- Lead, found in painted surfaces in older homes,
pipes carrying drinking water, lead crystal
glassware, and some ceramic dishes
- Arsenic, found in dust from pressure-treated
lumber
- Cadmium, found in semiconductor
manufacturing facilities
- Anesthetic gases, found in dental offices,
outpatient surgical facilities, and hospital
operating rooms
- Solvents, such as alcohol and paint thinners
- Parasite-bearing substances, such as animal
feces and undercooked meat, poultry, or eggs
Detrimental effects of hazards may be reduced by:
■ Limitng exposure to lead and mercury
■ Avoiding possible harmful chemicals
Problems in Prenatal Development: Maternal
Emotions
■ Maternal stress and depression related to higher risks
for fetus
■ Social support and counseling may help.
■ Mixed informaton from research
Fetal Assessment and Treatment
Ultrasonography - has become a routine part of
prenatal care in the United States because of its
usefulness in monitoring fetal growth. (Ultrasound
images are produced by the echoes that result from
bouncing sound waves off of internal tissues.)
Chorionic Villus Sampling(CVS) - , cells are extracted
from the placenta and used in a variety of laboratory
tests during the early weeks of prenatal development
Amniocentesis - With amniocentesis, which is done
between weeks 14 and 16 of a woman’s pregnancy, a
needle is used to extract amniotic fluid containing fetal
cells
tranquilizers can be administered to reduce anxiety.
Anesthesia, when used, is usually given later in labor to
block pain, either totally (general anesthesia) or in
certain portions of the body (local anesthesia such as an
epidural).
■ “Natural childbirth” - is commonly used to refer to
this particular choice. Natural childbirth involves several
components. First, a woman selects someone, usually
the baby’s father, to serve as a labor coach. Prepared
childbirth classes psychologically prepare the woman
and her labor coach for the experience of labor and
delivery. For example, they learn to use the term
contraction instead of pain. Further, believing that her
baby will benefit from natural childbirth provides the
woman with the motivation she needs to endure labor
without the aid of pain-relieving medication. Finally,
relaxation and breathing techniques provide her with
behavioral responses that serve to replace the negative
emotions that typically result from the physical
discomfort of contractions
The Physical Process of Birth Labor: An Overview
Alpha-Fetoprotein Blood Test - Many laboratory tests
use maternal blood, urine, and/or samples of amniotic
fluid to help health-care providers monitor fetal
development. For example, the presence of a substance
called alpha-fetoprotein in a pregnant woman’s blood is
associated with a number of prenatal defects, including
abnormalities in the brain and spinal cord
Fetoscopy - Fetoscopy involves insertion of a tiny
camera into the womb to directly observe fetal
development. Fetoscopy makes it possible for doctors
to correct some kinds of defects surgically
Birth and the Neonate: Birth Choices
■ Location of birth
■ Birth attendants
- A traditional hospital maternity unit
- A birth center or birthing room located within a
hospital, which provides a more homelike
setting for labor and delivery and often allows
family members to be present throughout
- A free-standing birth center, like a hospital birth
center except that it is located apart from the
hospital, with delivery typically being attended
by a midwife rather than (or in addition to) a
physician
- The mother’s home
■ Drugs during labor and delivery - Analgesics may be
given during labor to reduce pain. Sedatives or
Stage 1 covers the period during which two important
processes occur: dilation and effacement. The cervix
(the opening at the bottom of the uterus) must open up
like the lens of a camera (dilation) and also flatten out
(effacement). At the time of delivery, the cervix must
normally be dilated to about 10 centimeters (about 4
inches). Customarily, stage 1 is itself divided into
phases. In the early (or latent) phase, contractions are
relatively far apart and typically are not too
uncomfortable. In the active phase, which begins when
the cervix is 3 to 4 centimeters dilated and continues
until dilation has reached 8 centimeters, contractions
are closer together and more intense. The last 2
centimeters of dilation are achieved during a phase
usually called transition. It is this phase, when
contractions are closely spaced and strong, that women
typically find the most painful. Fortunately, transition is
also ordinarily the shortest phase. There is a great
amount of variability from one woman to another in the
length of each phase of labor. In fact, among women
delivering a first child, stage 1 may last as few as 3
hours or as many as 20 (Biswas & Craigo, 1994;
Kilpatrick & Laros, 1989). Generally speaking, however,
all three phases are longer among women delivering a
first child than among those delivering a second child.
At the end of the transition phase, the mother will
normally have the urge to help the infant emerge by
“pushing.” When the birth attendant (physician or
midwife) is sure the cervix is fully dilated, she or he will
encourage this pushing,
normal breathing patterns; a score of 3 or below
indicates a baby in critical condition.
stage 2 of labor, the delivery, begins. The baby’s head
moves past the stretched cervix, into the birth canal,
and finally out of the mother’s body. Most women find
this part of labor markedly less distressing than the
transition phase because at this point they can assist
the delivery process by pushing. Stage 2 typically lasts
less than an hour and rarely takes longer than 2 hours.
■ Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment - track a
newborn’s development over about the first 2 weeks
following birth.
- A health professional examines the neonate’s
responses to stimuli, reflexes, muscle tone, alertness,
cuddliness, and ability to quiet or soothe herself after
being upset. Scores on this test can be helpful in
identifying children who may have significant
neurological problems
Stage 3, also typically quite brief, is the delivery of the
placenta (also called the afterbirth) and other material
from the uterus.
The Physical Process of Birth: Birth Complicatons:
Cesarean Deliveries
- A breech presentation, in which an infant’s feet
or bottom is delivered first, represents one of
the most compelling reasons for a c-section
because it is associated with collapse of the
umbilical cord
- Women who choose to have a tubal ligation, an
operation in which the fallopian tubes are
surgically closed, immediately after birth often
undergo a cesarean delivery
BIRTH COMPLICATIONS
During the process of birth, some babies go into fetal
distress, signaled by a sudden change in heart rate.
The collapsed blood vessels can no longer carry blood to
and from the baby. When this happens, the baby
experiences anoxia, or oxygen deprivation. Anoxia can
result in death or brain damage, but doctors can
prevent long-term effects by acting quickly to surgically
deliver infants who experience distress
The Physical Process of Birth: Assessing the Neonate
During the first month of life, a baby is referred to as a
neonate. The health of babies born in hospitals and
birthing centers, as well as most who are delivered at
home by professional midwives, is usually assessed with
the Apgar scale.
■ Apgar scale - The baby receives a score of 0, 1, or 2 on
each of five criteria, listed in Table 3.7. A maximum
score of 10 is fairly unusual immediately after birth,
because most infants are still somewhat blue in the
fingers and toes at that stage. At a second assessment,
usually 5 minutes after birth, however, 85–90% of
infants score 9 or 10. A score of 7 or better indicates
that the baby is in no danger. A score of 4, 5, or 6
usually means that the baby needs help establishing
Assessing the Neonate: Low Birth Weight Babies (LBW)
LBW: below 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds)
Preterm: mostly born before Week 38 Small-for-date
neonates
Risks
Respiratory distress syndrome
Intervention
Adequate parental educaton and support reduces risk
of complicatons.
Chapter 4: Physical,
Sensory, and
Perceptual
Development in Infancy
Physical Changes: The Brain and Nervous System
Brain
•
•
•
Rapid development during the first 2 years
Midbrain and medulla most fully developed at
birth
o regulate vital functions such as
heartbeat and respiration, as well as
attention, sleeping, waking, elimination,
and movement of the head and neck—
all actions a newborn can perform at
least moderately well
The cortex is the least developed.
o involved in perception, body
movement, thinking, and language.
Synaptic Development
• two basic types of cells: neurons and glial cells.
Millions of these cells are present at birth, and
synapses, or connections between neurons,
have already begun to form.
• Synaptogenesis, the creation of synapses,
occurs rapidly in the cortex during the first few
years after birth, quadrupling the overall weight
of the brain by age 4
• each burst of synaptogenesis is followed by a
period of pruning in which unnecessary
pathways and connections are eliminated
The Brain and Nervous System: Plasticity
Neural plasticity: Brain’s ability to change in response
to experience
• Use it or lose it
• Changes in psychological functioning
• the brains of infants possess greater plasticity
than those of older children and adults.
The Brain and the Nervous System: Myelinization
Myelin: Insulating layer of proteins and fatty substances
myelinization or myelination - s is the creation of
sheaths, or coverings, around individual axons, which
insulate them from one another electrically and
improve their conductivity.
• The sequence of myelinization follows both
cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns.
• Myelinization is most rapid during the first 2
years after birth, but it continues at a slower
pace throughout childhood and adolescence.
• reticular formation is the part of the brain
responsible for keeping your attention on what
you’re doing and for helping you sort out
important and unimportant information.
• Myelinization of the reticular formation begins
in infancy but continues in spurts across
childhood and adolescence. In fact, the process
isn’t complete until a person is in her mid-20s.
Reflexes and Behavioral States: Reflexes
Adaptive reflexes: Reflexes that help survival
• Warn of possible neuronal development
problems when weak or absent
• Some persist throughout life.
• Some, such as automatically sucking any object
that enters the mouth, disappear in infancy or
childhood. Others protect us against harmful
stimuli over the whole lifespan. These include
withdrawal from a painful stimulus and the
opening and closing of the pupil of the eye in
response to variations in brightness
Primitive reflexes: Reflexes controlled by less
sophisticated parts of brain (the medulla and the
midbrain), are less clear.
• Should appear at birth and disappear by 6 to 8
months.
• May indicate neurological problems if
persistent.
Reflexes and Behavioral States: States of
Consciousness
- The cycle repeats itself about every 2 hours
Sleep, Baby, sleep
• Patterns of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with
age.
• Neonates sleep 80 percent of the time.
• By 8 weeks, babies begin to sleep through the
night.
• By 6 months, babies average 14 hours of sleep
per day.
• colic, a pattern involving intense bouts of crying
totaling 3 or more hours a day, for no
immediately apparent reason such as hunger or
a wet diaper.
Reflexes and Behavioral States: Five States of Sleep and
Wakefulness
• Most infants move through these states in the
same sequence every 2 hours
1. Fussing
2. Drowsy
3. Deep sleep
4. Light sleep
5. Alert wakefulness
6. Fussing
Reflexes and Behavioral States: Crying Baby, Not
Crybaby!
• Cries differ by need.
• Cross-cultural studies suggest crying increases
until 6 weeks then tapers of.
• Prompt attention to crying in the frst 3 months
leads to less crying later.
Growth, Motor Skills, and Developing Body Systems:
Physical Changes: Growth
By age one
• 10 to 12 inches of growth
• Infants triple body weight
•
Milestones of Motor Development in the First 2 Years
AGE IN MONTHS: 1
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Stepping reflex; lifts head slightly
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Holds object if placed in hand
AGE IN MONTHS: 2–3
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Lifts head up to 90-degree angle
when lying on stomach
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Begins to swipe at objects in sight
AGE IN MONTHS: 4–6
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Rolls over; sits with support;
moves on hands and knees (“creeps”); holds head erect
while in sitting position
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Reaches for and grasps objects
AGE IN MONTHS: 7–9
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Sits without support; crawls
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Transfers objects from one hand to
the other
AGE IN MONTHS: 10–12
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Pulls self up and walks grasping
furniture; then walks alone; squats and stoops; plays
pat-a-cake
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Shows some signs of hand
preference; grasps a spoon across palm but has poor
aim when moving food to mouth
AGE IN MONTHS: 13–18
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Walks backward, sideways; runs
(14–20 months); rolls ball to adult; claps
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Stacks two blocks; puts objects
into small container and dumps them out
AGE IN MONTHS: 19–24
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS: Walks up and down stairs, two
feet per step; jumps with both feet off ground
FINE MOTOR SKILLS: Uses spoon to feed self; stacks 4 to
10 blocks
Around age two
• Toddlers reach half their adult height.
• Proportionately much larger heads than adults
• Gross motor skills include abilities such as
crawling that enable the infant to get around in
the environment.
Growth, Motor Skills, and Developing Body Systems:
Growth and Motor Skills: Overview
•
•
Inborn timetable of motor skills interacts with
other aspects of physical development (Thelen).
o She often cited the disappearance of
the stepping reflex, the tendency for
very young infants to attempt to take
steps when they are placed in an
upright position with their feet touching
a flat surface, at 4 months of age as an
example of her dynamic systems
theory, the notion that several factors
interact to influence development
Muscles, bones, weight—all work together.
Opportunities to practice motor skills are
important.
Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills Bones
Ossification: Process of hardening of bones
• Begins during prenatal development
• Continues through puberty
• Motor development depends to a large extent
on ossification.
• Changes in number and density of bones are
responsible for improved coordination.
Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills: Muscles
• Full complement of muscle fbers present at
birth
• Decline in muscle tissue to fat ratio occurs by
age 1.
• Change in muscle composition leads to increase
in strength.
Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills: Lungs and
Heart
• Rapid growth during the frst 2 years leads to
stamina.
• Ability to sustain motor activity without rest by
end of infancy
Developing Body Systems and Motor Skills: CrossCultural Research
Experience influences motor development!
African motor development
• The pattern of traditional cultural practices
promotes motor development.
• Precocity does not persist into early childhood.
Health and Wellness Nutrition: Breastfeeding and Bottle
feeding
Breastfeeding
Nutritionally superior:
- More rapid weight gain and size
- Early health benefits
- Only nutrition needed for first 4 to 6 months of
life
- May not be possible for all mothers
Bottle feeding
• May be needed supplement for preterm babies
• Special-needs formulas available
• Can be high quality
• Allows more father participation
Health and Wellness: Nutrition: Solid Food
Solid Foods
– Early introduction can interfere with nutrition.
– Do not help babies to sleep through the night
– Should start between 4–6 months
• Baby is ready for solid foods when he or she can:
– Hold head in steady, upright position
– Sit with support
– Show interest in what you are eating
Health and Wellness: Malnutrition
Malnutrition:
1. Macronutrient malnutrition
- results from a diet that contains too few
calories
- is the world’s leading cause of death among
children under the age of 5
2. Marasmus
- When the calorie deficit is severe
- weigh less than 60% of what they should at
their age, and many suffer permanent
neurological damage from the disease. Most
also suffer from parasitic infections that lead to
chronic diarrhea. This condition makes it very
difficult to treat marasmus by simply increasing
an infant’s intake of calories. However, a
program of dietary supplementation with
formula combined with intravenous feedings
and treatment for parasites can reverse
marasmus
3. Kwashiorkor
- Some infants’ diets contain almost enough
calories but not enough protein
-
which is common in countries where infants are
weaned too early to low-protein foods.
4. Micronutrient malnutrition
- a deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals.
- infants who are still getting most of their
calories from milk after the age of 12 months
frequently develop iron-deficiency anemia
Health and Wellness: Health Care and Immunization
Health Care and Immunizations
– Routine health professional visits are important.
– Overall health and motor skills are assessed during
visits
– Vaccinations are given to prevent diseases.
Health and Wellness: Health Care and Illness
Illnesses in first 2 years
– Respiratory illnesses common
– Higher in children participating in childcare
programs
– Chronic ear infections
Health and Wellness: Infant Mortality
Death within the first year of life
– 7 babies per 1000 in the U.S.
– Related to prenatal care
– Varies widely among U.S. ethnic groups
Health and Wellness: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
(SIDS) - a phenomenon in which an apparently healthy
infant die suddenly and unexpectedly
Incidence: Leading cause of death in U.S. in infants 1–12
months
Relationships:
– Apnea - brief periods when their breathing
suddenly stops
– Sleeping on stomach - recommends that healthy
infants be positioned on their backs to sleep
– Maternal smoking - Babies exposed to such smoke
are about four times as likely to die of SIDS as are
babies with no smoking exposure
Sensory Skills: Vision
Rapid development of visual acuity
– 20/200 at birth; 20/20 at 2 years ■
Color vision
– Red, blue, green at 1 month ■
Tracking
– Tracking slow-moving object before 2 months and
skilled at 6–10 weeks ■
Hearing
– Adult voices heard well and some directional loudsound location ■
o newborns’ auditory acuity is actually
better than their visual acuity
o Another basic auditory skill that exists
at birth but improves with age is the
ability to determine the location of a
sound.
Smelling and tasting
– Newborns react diferently to each basic taste as
early as birth. ■
Touch and motion
– Best developed of all senses
Perceptual Skills: Studying Perceptual Development
Preference technique
– Study how long baby attends to a particular
stimulus. ■
Habituation/dishabituation
– Study loss of interest in particular stimulus afer
repeated exposures. ■
– habituation, or getting used to a stimulus, and its
opposite, dishabituation, responding to a
somewhat familiar stimulus as if it were new
Operant conditioning
– Vary the stimulus and study the learned responses.
– an infant might be trained to turn her head when
she hears a particular sound, with the sight of an
interesting moving toy used as a reinforcement
Looking Skills: Depth Perception
Depth perception can be judged by:
– Binocular cues - s involve both eyes, each of which
receives a slightly different visual image of an
object; the closer the object is, the more different
these two views are. In addition, of course,
information from the muscles of the eyes tells you
something about how far away an object may be
– Monocular cues - requires input from only one eye.
For example, when one object is partially in front of
another one, you know that the partially hidden
object is farther away—a cue called interposition
o Linear Perspective
–
Kinetic cues - come from either your own motion
or the motion of some object: If you move your
head, objects near you seem to move more than
objects farther away (a phenomenon called motion
parallax)
Depth Perception: A Walk on the Wild Side—Almost
Visual Cliff: Gibson and Walk (1960)
– Initial findings: 6-month-old babies would not cross
the visual cliff. ■
– Recent findings: 3-month-olds have some depth
perception.
Perceptual Skills: What Babies Look At: Scanning
Visual attention: guided by search for meaningful
pattern
1. Initially scan for sharp, light / dark contrasts and
then scan edges
2. 2months (scan entire object and look for
patterns)
3. 2-3 months(shif from where to what object)
4. 3-4 months(attention to patterns, not just
specifc stimuli)
What Babies Look At: What Babies Look At: Faces
– •Face NOT uniquely interesting to infants
– •Before 2 months: Scan edges (hairline, chin)
– •Attractive faces and mother’s face preferred
– •2–3 months: Scan internal facial features,
especially eyes
Listening What Babies Hear: Discriminating Speech
Sounds
– 1 month: discriminate between “pa” and “ba”
– 3 months: respond to male, female, and children’s
voices similarly
– 6 months: discriminate between 2-syllable words
– 6 months: distinguish sound contrasts in any
language; fades by 1 year
Perceptual Systems: Combining Information from
Several Senses
Intermodal perception: Formation of single perception
of stimulus that is based on information from 2 or
more senses
– Possible by 1 month ■
– Common by 6 months ■
– Important in infant learning
Perceptual Systems: Explaining Perceptual Development
Nativists
- Most perceptual abilities inborn ■
-
Many of these abilities present at birth ■
Empiricists
– Most perceptual abilities learned ■
– Experience needed to develop perceptual systems
A compromise position: Perceptual skill development is
the result of interaction between inborn and
experiential factors.
Chapter 5: Cognitive
Development in
Infancy
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Views
A quick review
– Assimilation ■
– Accommodation ■
– Sensorimotor intelligence ■
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor stage
– Basic reflexes
–
Primary circular reaction - refers to the many
simple repetitive actions seen at this time, each
organized around the infant’s own body. For
example, the baby may accidentally suck his thumb
one day, find it pleasurable, and repeat the action
–
Secondary circular reaction - , the baby repeats
some action in order to trigger a reaction outside
her own body.
–
Coordination of secondary schemas (means-end
behavior) - purposeful behavior carried out in
pursuit of a specific goal
–
Tertiary circular reaction - purposeful behavior
carried out in pursuit of a specific goal
–
Transition to symbolic thought
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage by Age
– Basic Reflexes - Birth to 1 month
– Primary Circular Reactions - 1 – 4 months
–
–
–
–
Secondary Circular Reactions - 4 – 8 months
Coordination of Secondary Schemes - 8 – 12
months
Tertiary Circular Reactions - 12 – 18 months
Transitions to Symbolic Thought - 18 – 24 months
Cognitive Changes: Piaget: Object Permanence
Object permanence: Realization that objects still exist
when hidden from sight
– 2 months: surprise when an object disappears
– 6–8 months: looking for missing object
– 8–12 months: reaching for or searching for
completely hidden toy
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage: Piaget: Imitation
Imitation: Performance of act whose stimulus is
observation of act performed by another person
– 2 months(imitate actions they could see
themselves make)
– 8-12 months: imitate other people’s facial
expressions
– 1 year: imitation of any action that wasn’t in
child’s repertoire begins
– 18 months: deferred imitation ( a child’s
imitation of some action at a later time) begins
Cognitive Changes: Challenges to Piaget’s Views
– Underestimation of infant cognitive capacity ■
– Inaccurate equation of infant’s lack of physical
ability with lack of cognitive understanding ■
– Underestimation of object permanence
appearance beginning ■
object concept an infant’s understanding of the nature
of objects and how they behave
violation-of-expectations method a research strategy in
which researchers move an object in one way after
having taught an infant to expect it to move in another
Cognitive Changes: Modern Studies of Object
Permanence
Recent theories
– Developing object permanence a process of
elaboration rather than discovery ■
Baillargeon
– Babies as young as 4 months show signs of
object permanence but may be tied to
experimental ■
– situations
– Around 1 year can use sufciently across
situations ■
–
w, infants initially develop basic hypotheses
about the way objects function—how they
move and how they connect to one another.
for operant learning is present before
birth.
–
Cognitive Changes: Summary of Diferences
Piaget’s early research
– Baby comes with repertoire of sensorimotor
scheme by construction—world understanding
via experiences.
Recent research
– Newborns have considerable awareness of
objects as separate entities that follow certain
rules.
Cognitive Changes: Spelke’s Alternative Approach
– Assumption: Babies have inborn assumptions
about objects and their movement.
–
–
Method: Violation of expectations method
Researchers move an object the opposite way
from that which the infant comes to expect.
Cognitive Changes: Baillargeon’s Alternative Approach
– Assumption: Knowledge about objects is not
built in, but strategies for learning are innate.
– Method: Study of object stability perception
– Researchers stack smiling-face blocks in stable
and unstable positions. ■
Learning, Categorizing, and Remembering:
Conditioning and Modeling
Learning: Permanent changes in behavior that result
from experience
– Classical Conditioning
o Gunther hypothesized that classical
conditioning was at work in such cases.
She developed an intervention based
on principles of stimulus–response
learning to help babies “unlearn” the
response of turning away from the
breast they had learned to associate
with the sensation of smothering
–
Operant Conditioning
o These systems reward infants with
music whenever they suck on specially
designed pacifiers. At the least, the fact
that conditioning of this kind can take
place in preterm infants means that
whatever neurological wiring is needed
Modeling
o observers were more proficient at
finding the toy than actors in both age
groups. However, the effect was much
more pronounced among the older
infants. Moreover, by 14 months,
infants distinguish between successful
and unsuccessful models and, like older
children and adults, are more likely to
imitate those who succeed at an
attempted task
Schematic Learning
- is the organizing of experiences into
expectancies, or “known” combinations. These
expectancies, often called schemas, are built up
over many exposures to particular experiences.
Once formed, they help the baby to distinguish
between the familiar and the unfamiliar
-
One kind of schematic learning involves
categories
o Research suggests that by 7 months of
age, and perhaps even earlier, infants
actively use categories to process
information.
o categorical organization as a cognitive
tool is clearly not well developed in 7month old
o categories such as “animals” are
referred to as superordinate
o The concept that smaller categories are
nested within larger ones, or
hierarchical categorization, is
demonstrated to some degree by 2year-olds
Learning, Categorizing, and Remembering: Memory
Carolyn Rovee-Collier’s research
– Babies as young as 3 months old can remember
specifc objects and their own actions for as long
as a week.
– Young infants are more cognitively
sophisticated than was previously assumed.
– At the same time, these studies support Piaget’s
view that infants show systematic gains in the
ability to remember over the months of infancy.
Twomonth-olds can remember their kicking
action for only 1 day, 3-month-olds can
remember it for over a week, and 6-month-olds
can remember it longer than 2 weeks
The Beginnings of Language: Theoretical Perspectives
– •Behaviorist view
– •Nativist view
– •Interactionist view
The Beginnings of Language: The Behaviorist View: B. F.
Skinner
– Parent-reinforced babbling and grammar use
o Parents hear the word like sounds and
respond to them with praise and
encouragement, which serve as
reinforcers.
– Correct grammar reinforced, becomes more
frequent ■
– Non-grammatical words not reinforced ■
The Beginnings of Language: The Nativist View Noam
Chomsky
– Grammar rules acquired before exception
mastery ■
– Rule-governed errors made (overregulation) ■
– Comprehension and production guided by
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - contains
the basic grammatical structure of all human
language.
The Beginnings of Language More about the LAD
Language Acquisition Device
– Basic grammatical structure for all human
language ■
– Tells babies there are 2 types of sounds
(consonants and vowels)
– Enables infants to divide, analyze, and learn
sounds of the specifc language they are learning
The Beginnings of Language: Dan Slobin
Importance of “soundness”
– Infants are preprogrammed to attend to
beginnings and endings of sounds and to
stressed sounds. ■
– Programming is not attached to verbs or nouns,
but to attention to sounds. ■
The Beginnings of Language: The Interactionist View
Four key ideas
1. Language follows rules as part of cognition.
2. Language includes internal and external factors.
3. Infants are born with biological preparedness to
pay more attention to language than other
information.
4. The infant brain has generalized tools used
across all cognitive domains—NOT languagespecifc neurological model.
The Beginnings of Language:
- interactionists theorists who argue that
language development is a subprocess of
general cognitive development and is
influenced by both internal and external factors
– Melissa Bowerman: Language does not initially
introduce new meaning, but expresses meaning
already formulated, independent of language.
– Lois Bloom; Children attempt to communicate
and learn new words when these aid in the
communication of thoughts and ideas.
The Beginnings of Language: Influences on Language
Development
Infant-directed speech -also known as motherese or
parentese.
– Higher pitch ■
– Repetitions with variations ■
– Infant preferred - They may also repeat the
child’s own sentences but in slightly longer,
more grammatically correct forms—a pattern
referred to as an expansion or a recasting.
The Beginnings of Language: Early Milestones of
Language Development
– Birth – 1 month (crying predominant sound)
– 1 – 2 months (laughing and cooing
sounds(aaaa)) 
– 6 – 7 months (Babbling; repetitive vowelconsonant combination) 
– 9 – 10 months(hand gesture-vocalization
combinations)
o At this age, babies begin “demanding”
or “asking” for things, using gestures or
combinations of gestures and sound.
Word Recognition: Receptive Language
Receptive language: Ability to understand words
– 6 months: begin to store words in memory ■
– 9–10 months: understands 20–30 words ■
– 13 months: 100 words ■
The Beginnings of Language: Expressive Language
Expressive language: Ability to produce words
- the ability to use sounds, signs, or symbols to
communicate meaning
– 12-13 months: Babies begin to say frst words. ■
– Words learned slowly in context with specifc
situations and cues ■
The Beginnings of Language: First Words
- •Holo-phrases
o combinations of gestures and single
words that convey more meaning than
just the word alone
o . In such cases, meaning is conveyed by
the use of gesture and body language
combined with a word. Linguists call
these word-and-gesture combinations
holophrases, and children use them
frequently between 12 and 18 months
of age.
-
•Naming Explosion
o the period when toddlers experience
rapid vocabulary growth, typically
beginning between 16 and 24 months
o children seem to learn new words with
very few repetitions, and they
generalize these words to many more
situations
The Beginnings of Language: First Sentences
– Short, simple sentences appear at 18–24
months. ■
– Threshold vocabulary reaches around 100– 200
words. ■
– Sentences: Following rules created ■
– Roger Brown: coined the term telegraphic
speech to refer to this pattern
o short, generally two or three words,
and they are simple
o Nouns, verbs, and adjectives are usually
included, but virtually all grammatical
markers (which linguists call inflections)
are missing.
The Beginning of Language: Individual Diferences in
Language Development: Rate
Diferences in rate of language development
– A wide range of normal variations exists in
sentence structures. ■
– Most children catch up. ■
– Those who don’t catch up have poor receptive
language. ■
The Beginning of Language: Individual Diferences in
Language Development: Style
Diferences in style: Expressive style
– Early vocabulary linked to social relationships
rather than objects ■
Referential style
– Early vocabulary made up of names of things or
people
The Beginning of Language: Language Development
across Cultures
– Cooing, babbling, holophrases, and telegraphic
speech typically found in all languages ■
– Use of specifc word order in early sentences is
not the same. ■
– Particular inflections are learned in highly
varying and specifc orders. ■
Measuring Intelligence in Infancy: What Is Intelligence?
– Intelligence: Ability to take in information and
use it to adapt to environment. Although each
infant develops at a diferent pace, both genetic
and environmental factors influence infant
intelligence.
Measuring Intelligence in Infancy
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
- measure primarily sensory and motor skills
- have not been nearly as useful for forecasting
later IQ scores or school performance as many
had hoped.
Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence ■
Chapter 6: Social and
Personality
Development in
Infancy
Theories of Social and Personality Development
Psychoanalytic Perspectives: Freud and Erikson
Freud: psychosexual stage related to infant attempts at
needs satisfaction
– Oral stage - Infants derive satisfaction through
the mouth. Freud further believed that the
weaning process should be managed in such a
way that the infant’s need to suck is neither
frustrated nor overgratified.
o
–
–
Fixation would manifest itself, in
Freud’s view, in oral behaviors such as
nail biting and swearing.
Mother-child symbiotic relationship
o He believed that the infant did not
understand herself to be separate from
her mother. Thus, another result of a
gratifying nursing period followed by a
balanced weaning process, Freud
thought, was the infant’s development
of a sense of both attachment to and
separation from the mother
Nursing; fxation ■
Erikson: psychosocial stage in which attending to infant
needs and social development important
– Trust versus mistrust ■
o In this study, infant monkeys were
separated from their mothers at birth.
The experimenters placed two different
kinds of “surrogate” mothers in their
cages
– Relationship goes beyond feeding ■
Attachment: The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
Synchrony: Opportunity for parent-infant development
of mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment
behaviors
attachment theory the view that infants are biologically
predisposed to form emotional bonds with caregivers
and that the characteristics of those bonds shape later
social and personality development
– Takes practice to develop ■
– Provides developmental benefts ■
Theories of Social and Personality Development:
Ethological Perspectives: John Bowlby
Attachment: Emotional bond in which a person’s sense
of security is bound up in the relationship
– Strong emotional bond-making is innate ■
– Bonds maintained by instinctive behaviors that
create and sustain proximity ■
Attachment: The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
Mother’s bond with infant
– Bond dependent on synchrony
o opportunity for mother and infant to
develop a mutual, interlocking pattern
of attachment behaviors
o The baby signals his needs by crying or
smiling; he responds to being held by
–
–
quieting or snuggling; he looks at the
parents when they look at him. The
mother, in turn, enters into the
interaction with her own repertoire of
caregiving behaviors.
Mothers provide more routine caregiving than
fathers.
Afer frst few weeks, mothers talk to and smile
more at baby. ■
Attachment: The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
Father’s bond with infant
– The relationship depends on synchrony. ■
– Fathers have same repertoire as mothers. ■
– Afer frst few weeks, fathers begin to spend
more time playing with baby. ■
When mothers observe attachment the emotional tie to
a parent experienced by an infant, from which the child
derives security synchrony a mutual, interlocking
pattern of attachment behaviors shared by a parent and
child or interact with their infants, their bodies release
oxytocin, a hormone that is correlated with empathy,
the desire for physical closeness with another person
for whom one feels affection, and physical relaxation.
By contrast, watching and interacting with babies
stimulates vasopressin in fathers, a hormone that is
linked to arousal, aggression, and physical activity.
Attachment: The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents
Characteristics of attachment
– Safe haven ■
– Secure base ■
– Proximity maintenance ■
– Separation distress ■
Now let’s look at how several theorists operationalize
this construct.
Attachment: The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents
Establishing attachment: Bowlby’s 4 phases
1. Nonfocused orienting and signaling (0–3
months)
- Babies exhibit behaviors, such as crying, smiling,
and making eye contact, that draw the
attention of others and signal their needs. They
direct these signals to everyone with whom
they come into contact.
2. Focus on one or more fgures (3–6 months)
- Babies direct their “come here” signals to fewer
people, typically those with whom they spend
the most time, and are less responsive to
unfamiliar people
3. Secure base behavior (6–24 months)
- True attachment emerges. Babies show
“proximity-seeking” behaviors such as following
and clinging to caregivers whom they regard as
“safe bases,” especially when they are anxious,
injured, or have physical needs such as hunger.
Most direct these behaviors to a primary
caregiver when that person is available and to
others only when the primary caregiver, for
some reason, cannot or will not respond to
them or is absent
4. Internal model (24 months and beyond)
- An internal model of the attachment
relationship allows children older than 2 to
imagine how an anticipated action might affect
the bonds they share with their caregivers (van
IJzendoorn, 2005). The internal model plays a
role in later relationships with early caregivers
(i.e., adult children and their parents) and in
other significant relationships (i.e., romantic
partnerships) throughout life.
Attachment behaviors
Stranger Anxiety - with behaviors such as clinging to
their mothers when strangers are present
- expressions of discomfort, such as clinging to
the mother, in the presence of strangers
Separation Anxiety - expressions of discomfort, such as
crying, when separated from an attachment figure
- y is evident when infants cry or protest being
separated from the mother
Social Referencing - an infant’s use of others’ facial
expressions as a guide to his or her own emotions
- Infants use cues from the facial expressions and
the emotional tone of voice used by their
attachment figures to help them figure out
what to do in novel situations,
Attachment: Secure and Insecure Attachments
Mary Ainsworth Protocol: The Strange Situation
Attachment styles:
– Secure attachment - a pattern of attachment in
which an infant readily separates from the
parent, seeks proximity when stressed, and
uses the parent as a safe base for exploration
–
Insecure/avoidant attachment - a pattern of
attachment in which an infant avoids contact
with the parent and shows no preference for
the parent over other people
–
Insecure/ambivalent attachment - a pattern of
attachment in which the infant shows little
exploratory behavior, is greatly upset when
separated from the mother, and is not
reassured by her return or efforts to comfort
him
–
Insecure/disorganized attachment - a pattern
of attachment in which an infant seems
confused or apprehensive and shows
contradictory behavior, such as moving toward
the mother while looking away from her
Attachment Stability of Attachment Quality
Attachment stability
– Dependent on consistency of child’s life
circumstances ■
– Influenced by major upheavals ■
– Internal models elaborated from year 1 until
the age of 4 or 5 ■
Attachment: Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment
Caregivers and attachment
Several characteristics influence the attachment
process:
– Emotional availability ■
– Contingent responsiveness ■
Attachment: Secure and Insecure Attachments
Insecure attachments
– Insecure/avoidant attachment ■
– Insecure/ambivalent attachment ■
– Insecure/disorganized attachment ■
Attachment: Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment
Other caregiver characteristics influencing secure
attachment
- Marital status - Researchers have found that
infants whose parents are married are more
likely to be securely attached than babies
whose parents are either cohabiting or single
-
Education ■
Age ■
SES ■
Mental health - Research suggests that
depression diminishes a mother’s capacity to
interpret and respond to important infant
signals such as crying
Attachment Quality: Long Term Consequences
The securely attached:
– More sociable ■
– More positive in relationships with friends ■
– Less clingy and dependent on teachers ■
– Less aggressive and disruptive ■
– More emotionally mature ■
Continues into adolescence
– More likely to be leaders ■
– Have higher self-esteem ■
Attachment quality and consequences
– Increased sociability throughout early, middle,
and late adulthood ■
– Influence on parenting behaviors ■
– Foundation for future social relationships
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept: Defnitions
Personality: Stable patterns in how people relate to
those around them
Temperament: Basic behavioral and emotional
predispositions
Dimensions of temperament: How are these theorists
alike? Diferent?
– Thomas and Chess ■
o Easy children (40% of infants). These
children approach new events
positively, display predictable sleeping
and eating cycles, are generally happy,
and adjust easily to change.
o Difficult children (10% of infants).
Patterns that include irregular sleeping
and eating cycles, emotional negativity
and irritability, and resistance to change
characterize children in this category.
o Slow-to-warm-up children (15% of
infants). Children in this group display
few intense reactions, either positive or
negative, and appear nonresponsive to
unfamiliar people
–
Buss and Plomin ■
Many theorists are now emphasizing the following five
key dimensions of temperament:
1. Activity level. A tendency to move often and
vigorously rather than to remain passive or
immobile.
2. Approach/positive emotionality/sociability. A
tendency to move toward rather than away
from new people, situations, or objects, usually
accompanied by positive emotion.
3. Inhibition and anxiety. The flip side of
approach/positive emotionality/sociability is a
tendency to respond with fear or to withdraw
from new people, situations, or objects.
4. Negative
emotionality/irritability/anger/emotionality. A
tendency to respond with anger, fussiness,
loudness, or irritability; a low threshold of
frustration. This dimension appears to be what
Thomas and Chess (1977) are tapping with their
concept of the “difficult” child.
5. Effortful control/task persistence. An ability to
stay focused, to manage attention and effort.
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept Origins
and Stability of Temperament
Heredity
– Identical twins more alike in temperament than
fraternal twins ■
– Basic diferences in behaviors related to
underlying neurological processes ■
– Neurotransmitters regulate brain responses to
new information and unusual situations. ■
– Still difcult to demonstrate conclusively that
neurological diferences are cause or efect ■
Long-term Stability
– Stable across long periods of time ■
Neurological Processes
- dopamine and serotonin, support this
hypothesis (Davies, Cicchetti, Hentges, &
Sturge-Apple, 2013; Lakatos et al., 2003). These
neurotransmitters regulate the brain’s
responses to new information and unusual
situations—precisely the kinds of stimuli that
appear to overstimulate shy children in most
studies
- Another important neurological variable that
has been found to be associated with shyness is
frontal lobe asymmetry
Environment - They argue that behavior shapes the
brain. Thus, shy children may exhibit different
neurological patterns than outgoing children because
their exhibition of shy behavior contributes to the
neural networks that developmental processes in the
brain, such as pruning, allow to develop and those that
are shut down due to lack of use.
Sandra Scarr
– Niche-picking - the process of selecting
experiences on the basis of temperament
Thomas and Chess
– Goodness of fit - children’s temperaments and
their environments influences how inborn
temperamental characteristics are manifested
later in life.
Synchronous relationships
– Parental influence with children at
temperamental extremes ■
Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept:
Understanding Infant Sense of Self
Subjective Self --- Emotional Self ---- Objective Self
Personality, Temperament, and Self- Concept
Self-concept: The subjective self / Existential self
- because the key awareness seems to be “I
exist.”
– Awareness by the child that he is separate from
others and endures over time ■
– Appears by 8–12 months at the same time as
object permanence ■
Self-concept: The objective self
- sometimes called the categorical self, because
once the child achieves self-awareness, the
process of defining the self involves placing
oneself in a number of categories.
– Toddler comes to understand he is an object in
the world. ■
– The self has properties, such as gender.
Personality, Temperament, and Self- Concept: Studying
Self-Awareness
Rouge test (Lewis and Brooks)
– Children at 21 months show self-recognition in
a mirror.
Personality, Temperament, and Self- Concept: The
Emotional Self
– First, babies learn to identify changes in
emotional expression. ■
– Gradually they learn to “read” and respond to
facial expressions. ■
– With age and experience, infants learn to
interpret emotional perceptions of others to
anticipate actions and guide own behavior.
Efects of Non-parental Care: Overview
– Arrangements vary considerably. ■
– Time in care varies. ■
– Some children in multiple care setngs ■
– Younger children less likely to receive Nonparental care
Efects of Non-parental Care: Efects on Cognitive
Development
– High-quality daycare has benefcial efects,
especially for children from poor families. ■
– Later scores in reading and math related to
daycare entry age and poverty ■
Efects of Non-parental Care: Efects on Social
Development
– Infant daycare has negative efects on
attachment if started under 1 year. ■
– Parents whose behaviors are associated with
insecure attachment have children who are
negatively afected by early daycare.
– Early day care associated with greater risks for
social problems in school-age children ■
Efects of Non-parental Care Research Challenges
– Complex interaction among numerous variables
in all care types ■
– Non-parental care varies in quality and
structure. ■
– Maternal attudes toward care arrangement
vary
– Multiple care setngs difcult to separate ■
Efects of Non-parental Care: What’s Responsible?
– Non-parental care may induce child stress,
causing higher levels of cortisol. ■
– Variations in ways stress-induced related to
child age and temperament ■
– Individual and gender diferences interact with
Non-parental care.
Chapter 7: Physical and
Cognitive Development
in Early Childhood
Physical Changes: Growth and Motor Development
In early childhood:
– Changes in height and weight happen more
slowly during early childhood than infancy ■
– Impressive gains in major locomotor skills ■
– Manipulative skills improve but less so than
major motor skills ■
Physical Changes: Children’s Drawing
– Early training can accelerate rate children learn
school-related fne-motor skills ■
– Older children beneft more from training more
than younger ■
– Learning to write leters aids in leter
understanding
The Brain and Nervous System: Lateralization
Lateralization: left and right halves of the brain's
cerebral cortex execute different functional
specializations
– Contributes to important neurological
milestones in early childhood
Basic outline of lateralization is genetically determined
– Genes dictate functions to be lateralized
– Experience shapes pace of lateralization
The Brain and Nervous System: Myelinization
Myelinization: protective, faty material wraps around
nerve cells in the peripheral and central nervous
system
– Reticular formation ■
– Hippocampus ■
The Brain and Nervous System: Handedness
Right or Left...Not right or wrong!
– 83% right-handed ■
– 14% left-handed ■
– 3% ambidextrous ■
– Appears very early in life ■
– Research suggests genetic link ■
–
–
Each year, 4 – 6 bouts of brief sickness ■
High levels of family stress more likely to
produce sick children ■
Health and Wellness: Illnesses and Accidents
Accidents
– •25% of U.S. children under 5 have one accident
in any one year requiring medical atention
– •Most occur in home
– •Major cause of death in preschoolers
– •More common among boys
Abuse and Neglect: Child abuse
What is child abuse?
– Child Abuse: Physical or psychological injury
resulting from adult’s intentional exposure of
child to potentially harmful stimuli, sexual acts,
or neglect
Abuse and Neglect: Child Abuse Prevalence
Prevalence
– Responsible for about 10% of emergency room
visits ■
– Between 1% and 5% of children suffer physical
abuse ■
– 2000 infants and children die each year as result
of child abuse ■
Abuse and Neglect: Risk factors
Overview: Sociocultural factors
– Personal or cultural values that regard physical
abuse as morally acceptable ■
– Cultural traditions that view children as
property ■
– Communities that support these beliefs ■
Abuse and Neglect: Risk factors: Child Characteristics
Characteristics of child
– Physical or mental disabilities ■
– Difcult temperaments ■
– Age ■
Health and Wellness: Eating paterns
Preschoolers:
– Often eat less than when babies ■
– May not consume the majority of daily calories
at mealtime ■
Challenges:
– Food aversions may surface ■
– Eating behaviors bring on family conficts ■
Abuse and Neglect: Risk factors: Abuser Characteristics
Characteristics of abuser
– Depressed ■
– Lacking in parenting skills and knowledge ■
– History of abuse themselves
– Substance abusers ■
– Live-in male partners ■
Health and Wellness: Illnesses and Accidents
Illness
Abuse and Neglect: Risk factors: Family Stress
Family stress
– Poverty ■
– Unemployment ■
– Inter-parental conficts ■
The presence of several factors in combination
increases likelihood of abuse
Abuse and Neglect: Consequences of Abuse
– Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) ■
– Delays in all developmental domains ■
– Children removed from the abusive situation
typically appear to catch up within 1 year. ■
Cognitive Changes: Children’s Play and Cognitive
Development
– Play: Constructive play, First pretend play,
Substitute pretend play, Sociodramatic play,
Rule-governed play
Abuse and Neglect: Prevention
Preventing abuse begins with education!
– Inform parents about consequences ■
– Parenting classes ■
– Identify families at risk ■
– Protect children from further injury ■
Challenges to Piaget’s Views: Emotions
Understanding(Young children understand others’
emotions)
 Regulation(Young children can
regulate own emotions) 
Appearance and Reality(Older Children understand
same object can be represented differently, depending
on point of view)
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage:
Overview
Preoperational Stage
Semiotic(symbolic) functioning acquired Increased
profciency in thinking and communicating but
difculty in logical thinking  Beginning of pretend play
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage:
Centration
– Centration: tendency to think of world one
variable at a time
– Use of animism or belief that inanimate objects
are alive ■
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage:
Egocentrism
Egocentrism: child’s tendency to view things from own
perspective
– Guided by object appearance ■
– May create frustration in communication
– Piaget’s Mountain Task
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage:
Conservation
Conservation: understanding that change in appearance
can occur without change in quantity
– •Successful conservation based on 3
characteristics of appearance-only mater
transformation including identity,
compensation, and reversibility
– •Unsuccessful conservation involves centration
and irreversibility (usually 4-5 years)
Challenges to Piaget’s Views: Do you agree or disagree?
Children as young as 2 and 3 have at least some ability
to understand that another person sees things or
experiences things differently than they do.
Challenges to Piaget’s Views: Flavell
Flavell’s perspective-taking ability levels
– Level One – child knows that other people
experience things differently: begins at 2 – 3
years ■
– Level Two –child develops a series of complex
rules to fgure out precisely what the other
person sees or experiences: begins at 4 – 5
years
Theories of Mind
Theory of Mind: understanding thoughts, desires, and
beliefs of others
– [ 18 months – rudimentary beginnings ]
– [ Age 3 – some aspects of link between people’s
thinking, feelings, and behaviors ] 
– [ Age 4 – recognizes each person’s actions are
based on their representation of reality ]
Theories of Mind
•4 – 5 years olds:
– oCannot understand that others can think
about them
– oDon’t understand that most knowledge can be
derived from inference (this understanding
develops by age 6)
•5 – 7 years olds:
– oUnderstand reciprocal nature of thought
Theories of Mind
False Belief Principle: Children see problem from
another’s point of view and discern what information
causes person to believe something that isn’t true
– •4 – 5 years: understand other people think;
don’t understand thinking can be about them
– •5 – 7 years: understand reciprocal nature of
thought
– •6+ years: realization knowledge can be derived
through inference
Theories of Mind: Infuences on Development of a
Theory of Mind
Correlated with:
– Performance on Piaget’s tasks ■
– Pretend play ■
– Shared pretense with other children ■
– Discussion of emotion-provoking events with
parents ■
– Language skills and working memory ■
– Cross-cultural infuences ■
Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking
Neo-Piagetian Theories: Robbie Case
– Short-term storage space (STSS) ■
– Operational efciency ■
– Matrix Classifcation Task
Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking:
Information Processing Theories
– Metamemory: Knowledge about and control of
memory processes
– Metacognition: Knowledge about and control of
thought processes
– Scripts: Cognitive structures underlie behavior
and emerge during middle childhood
Alternative Theories of Early Childhood Thinking:
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Overview
– Emphasis on role of social factors in cognitive
development ■
– Problem solutions socially generated and
learned ■
– Key principles: Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) and scaffolding ■
Stages of Cognitive Development
Primitive stage  Naïve Psychology stage  Private
Speech stage  Ingrowth stage
– •How are Vygotsky’s stages related to the
eventual development of adult thinking?
– •Each stage represents a step toward child’s
internalization of ways of thinking used by
adults around him or her.
Changes in Language
Fast-mapping: Ability to categorically link new words to
real word referents
– Occurs at about age 3 ■
– Rapid formation of hypothesis about new
word’s meaning ■
Remember: Word learning drives process of language
development
Changes in Language: Grammar Explosion
Grammar Explosion: Period when grammatical features
of child speech become more adult-like
– Infections ■
– Questions and Negatives ■
– Over-regularizations ■
– Complex sentences ■
Changes in Language: Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness: Child’s sensitivity to sound
paterns that are specifc to a language
– Awareness of sounds represented by leters ■
– Learned in school through formal instruction ■
– Primarily developed through word play ■
– Related to invented spelling ■
Differences in Intelligence: Measuring Intelligence
– Alfred Binet
– Lewis Terman: Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
– Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children
Differences in Intelligence: Something to Consider
An important assumption in studying differences in
intelligence is that these differences can be
measured.
The Normal Curve
IQ scores form a normal distribution – the famous “bell
curve” with which you may be familiar.
Differences in Intelligence
Stability and Predictive Value of IQ Scores
– Correlation between IQ score and future grades
is about .50 – .60. ■
– Consistent relationship are found within social
classes and racial groups. ■
– IQ scores are quite stable BUT do not measure
underlying competence.
Origins of Individual Differences in Intelligence:
Evidence of Heredity and Family Infuences
Heredity
– Twin and adoption studies’ fndings
Family Infuences
– Adoption studies’ fndings
– Family demographics and learning
environments
Origins of Individual Differences in Intelligence:
Evidence for Preschool Infuences
– Short- and long term outcomes from formal
education programs
– Head Start outcomes
Chapter 8: Social and
Personality
Development in Early
Childhood
Theories of Social and Personality Development:
Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Freud: gain control over bodily functions and
renegotiate parent relationships
– •Anal Stage
– •Phallic Stage
Erikson: agreed with Freud with added focus on social
skill development
– Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt ■
– Initiative versus Guilt ■
Theories of Social and Personality Development: SocialCognitive Perspectives
Person perception: increasing ability to classify others
– Use category trait labels. ■
– Describe others’ behavior paterns of others. ■
– Categorize based on observation
characteristics. ■
Understanding Rule Categories
– Social conventions ■
– Moral rules ■
– Differentiation of response ■
– Increased cognitive capabilities and adult
emphasis
Understanding Others’ Intentions
Children do understand intentions to some degree:
– Punishment is for intentional acts. ■
– Actors’ intentions mater. ■
– Choices bound by consequences. ■
Racism in Preschool Classroom
– Early judgments refect ego thinking and
cognitive immaturity, not true racism. ■
– Judgment of others related to race schemas. ■
– Understanding of cultural racial stereotypes and
prejudices slowly acquired
Personality and Self-Concept: A Brief Overview
– Gains in social environment understanding
contribute to emergence of distinctive
personality. ■
– Self-concept becomes more complex
– Exercise of greater control over behavior is
aided. ■
Personality and Self-Concept: Transition from
Temperament to Personality
– Personality represents combination of
■temperament at birth and knowledge about
temperament-related behavior during
childhood.
– Social rewards encourage impulse control and
behavior is modifed. ■
Personality and Self-Concept: Me, myself, and more
Components of Self-Concept:
1. Categorical Self
2. Emotional Self
3. Social Self
Gender Development
Explanations and Theory:
– Psychoanalytic Explanations ■
– Social-Cognitive Explanations ■
– Gender Schema Theory ■
Gender Development: Gender Concept Sequence
Gender understanding develops in stages:
– Gender identity ■
– Gender stability ■
– Gender constancy
Gender Development: Information-Processing Approach
Gender schema theory: development of gender schema
underlies gender development and occurs with
recognition of gender differences
– Schema organization ■
– First primitive gender schema and assimilation
■
Gender Development Sex-Typed Behavior
Sex-type behavior:
– Develops earlier than ideas about gender ■
– Learned from older same-sex children ■
– Learned differently by gender
Family Relationships and Structure: Atachment
– Securely atached preschoolers exhibit fewer
behavior problems. ■
– Insecurely atached children display more anger
and aggression at daycare and preschool. ■
– By age 4, children form goal-corrected
partnerships. ■
Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles:
Diana Baumrind
•Dimensions
•Parenting Styles
Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian
Parenting Characteristics
– High levels of demand and control ■
– Low levels of warmth and communication ■
Child Consequences
– Good school performance ■
– Lower self-esteem and less peer interaction
skills ■
– Some subdued; others highly aggressive
Family Relationships and Structure Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian
Parenting Characteristics
– High in warmth and communication ■
– Low in demand and control ■
Child Consequences
– Poor adolescent school performance ■
– More aggressive and immature
– Less responsible and independent
– Much less achievement-oriented in school
Family Relationships and Structure: Effects of Parenting
Styles: Overview
Authoritative Parents
– More likely to be involved in child’s school ■
– Often use inductive discipline ■
– Not equally effective for all children ■
Family Relationships and Structure: Effects of Parenting
Styles: Spanking
Most parents believe spanking effective if used
sparingly
– Short-term effects ■
– Long-term effects ■
– Premack’s principle ■
Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles:
Authoritative patern
– Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups ■
– More common in white families and middle
class ■
– Usually more common among intact families ■
– Least common among Asian Americans
Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles
Authoritarian patern in Asian American families
– High levels of school achievement in Asian
American children ■
– Economic success ■
– Maintenance of ethnic identity ■
Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian patern in African American
families
– Enhances children’s potential for self- control
and success ■
– Prepares children to deal with social forces such
as racism that impede social success ■
– Reduces use of substance abuse ■
Family Relationships and Structure
Family Structure: Diversity in Two-Parent and SingleParent Families
– Only 70% of U.S. children lived with both
biological parents in 2007. ■
– Many children from two-parent families have
experienced single-parenting. ■
– 2% of U.S. children live with custodial
grandparents.
Ethnicity and U.S. Family Types: Family Structure and
Ethnicity Single Parents
Family Structure: Single-Parent Families
– More common among African Americans and
Native Americans ■
– Single mothers are less likely to marry. ■
– Grandparents and other relatives traditionally
help support single mothers. ■
–
Some single mothers are fnancially secure. ■
Family Relationships and Structure: Other Types of
Family Structures
Custodial Grandparents
– Aging and parenting stress cause anxiety and
depression. ■
Gay and Lesbian Parents
– No expressed social or cognitive developmental
differences between the children of gay and
lesbian parents and the children of
heterosexual couples.
Family Relationships and Structure: Divorce: Impact on
Children
– •Declines in school performance
– •More aggressive, defant, or depressed
behaviors
– •Higher incidence of adolescent criminal
behavior
– •Step-children differences
– •Higher risk of mental problems in adulthood
– •Lack fnancial and emotional support needed
for success in college
– •Struggle with fears of intimacy in relationships
– •More likely to divorce themselves
– •Short term: effects are more severe for boys
Family Relationships and Structure: Understanding
Results from Psychological Research
– Parenthood or divorce reduces fnancial and
emotional resources available to a child
– Any transition involves upheaval
– Authoritative parenting likely diminishes during
upheaval
– Extended family networks mitigate impact
Peer Relationships: Kinds of Play
Successful play associated with development of social
skills:
– Solitary play
– Parallel play
– Cooperative play
Peer Relationships: Group Entry and Play
Poor group entry skills
– Lead to aggressive behaviors ■
– Optimize peer rejection ■
– May change with social skills training to help
gain acceptance for rejected children
Aggression: Behavior intended to hurt another or object
Instrumental ■
Hostile ■
Peer Relationships Why does aggression change during
preschool years?
1. Declining egocentrism
2. Increasing understanding of others’ thoughts
and feelings
3. Emergency of dominance hierarchy
4. Shift from instrumental to hostile aggression
Peer Relationships: Development of Aggression
Aggression Theories
– Aggression-frustration hypothesis ■
– Reinforcement and modeling hypothesis
(Bandura) ■
– Trait aggression (genetic base) ■
– Environmental infuence ■
Prosocial Behavior and Friendships
Prosocial behavior: Actions that beneft or help another
person
– Development of prosocial behavior increases
during preschool years. ■
– Parental infuences affect children’s empathy. ■
Friendships
– 18 months: some toddlers express friendships ■
– 3 years: 20% of preschoolers have stable
playmate ■
– 4 Years: 30% of time spent with another child ■
Early friendships become more stable with time, but are
still primitive by adult standards.
Chapter 9: Physical and
Cognitive Development
in Middle Childhood
Physical Changes: Growth and Motor Development
From 6 to 12
– General growth ■
– Large muscle coordination ■
– Fine motor control ■
– Eye-hand coordination improvement ■
How did you grow during middle childhood?
Gender Differences
Girls:
– Faster in overall growth rate ■
– Slightly more fat and less muscle ■
– Beter coordination ■
Boys:
–
Boys faster and stronger ■
The Brain and Nervous System
Associational area neuros, Frontal lobes and reticular
formation links, Myelinization continuation
–
–
–
Most serious long-term health risk of middle
childhood ■
Affecting nearly 1 in 5 children ■
Associated with adult obesity ■
Cognitive Changes: Language
During the school-aged years, children:
– Demonstrate improved grammar skills and
pronunciation ■
– Engage in conversation with many ages ■
– Increase in vocabulary, especially derived words
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Major Middle Childhood Growth Spurts
– From 6 to 8 years: Increases in the sensory and
motor cortex ■
– From 10 to 12 years: Frontal lobes and cerebral
cortex add synapses ■
Cognitive Changes: The Brain and Nervous System
Spatial perception lateralization
– Improves learning math concepts and problemsolving ■
Spatial cognition
– Ability to infer rules from and make predictions
about movements of objects in space
Cognitive Changes: Health and Wellness
Rate and Type of Injury Changes with Age
Head injuries
– Motor vehicles and bicycles ■
Traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
– Reduced by helmet usage ■
Cognitive Changes: Health and Wellness
Asthma: Chronic disease that causes airways to become
sore and swollen
Causes
– Allergens, irritants, weather, exercise,
infections ■
Consequences
– Most frequent cause of school absence ■
Health and Wellness: Obesity
Obesity: Excess body fat that has adverse effect on
health
Concrete Operational Stage: Thinking logically about
concrete concepts but have difculty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts
School-aged children:
– Understand rules that govern physical reality ■
– Distinguish between appearance and reality ■
– Utilize a set of powerful schemas ■
Cognitive Changes: Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Do you know what powerful schema school-aged
children use?
– Decentration
– Reversibility
– Inductive logic
– Deductive logic
Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage: Direct Tests of
Piaget’s View
Horizontal decalage: Applying new thinking to all kinds
of problems
Conservation: Ability to logically determine certain
quantity remains same despite adjustment of
container, shape, or apparent size
Direct Tests of Piaget’s View: Siegler
Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving
Siegler
– Cognitive development consists of acquiring a
set of basic rules applied to broader ranges of
problems.
– Movement from one rule to next requires
experience. ■
– This approach is a cross between Piaget’s and
information processing theories.
Advances in Information Processing Skills: Processing
Efciency
Processing efficiency: Ability to make efcient use of
short-term memory capacity
– Major component of cognitive growth
– Increases speed of cognitive processing ■
– Change validated with cross-cultural research ■
Advances in Information Processing Skills: Automaticity
Automaticity: Ability to recall information from long
term memory without using short term memory
capacity
– Frees up short-term memory space for more
complex processing ■
– Achieved primarily through practice ■
Advances in Information Processing Skills: Executive and
Strategic Processes
Executive processes: Information processing skills
allowing a person to devise and carry out alternative
strategies for remembering and problem solving
– Metacognition: “thinking about thinking” ■
– Memory strategies ■
Advances in Information Processing Skills: Expertise
Expertise: Amount of information possessed improves
information processing
– Categorize information in complex and
hierarchical ways ■
– Stirs capacity for creativity ■
– Chi research ■
Schooling: Overview
– Every society seeks ways of teaching children
skills needed in adulthood. ■
– In U.S., formal education is one of most
important infuence on cognitive development
in middle childhood.
Schooling
Literacy: Ability to read and write
– Phonological awareness ■
– Balanced approach utilizes systematic and
explicit phonics instruction
– Sound-symbol connections and explicit
language mechanics instruction ■
– Curriculum fexibility
Second-Language Learners
– ■Limited English Proficient (LEP): Limited ability
to read, write, speak, or understand English
–
–
–
–
–
–
■English Language Learners (ELL): Limited
English profciency prevents full participation in
regular education classes
By 2008, one-half of all U.S. classrooms had one
or more ELL or LEP students ■
■Programs and services provided
o oBilingual education
o oESL
o oHome-school programs
No single approach is most successful ■
Any structured program beter than submersion
■
Transition to English-only program is necessary
■
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
Standardized tests: Individual performance determined
by comparing score to average score obtained
from large sample of similar individuals
Kinds of tests
– Achievement tests ■
– Paper and pencil intelligence tests ■
Schooling
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
– oMultiple Intelligences – Howard Gardner
– oTriarchic Theory – Robert Sternberg
– oEmotional Intelligences – Daniel Goleman
Schooling: Group Differences in Achievement
Sex differences
– No consistent differences between boys and
girls on total IQ or achievement test scores ■
– Differences shaped by interaction between
biology and environmental factors ■
Ethnic differences
– Problems associated with economic status;
access to prenatal care; family stability ■
Style differences
– Analytic ■
– Relational ■
Schooling: Cross Cultural Differences in Achievement
– U.S. children signifcantly behind industrialized
nation peers in math and science ■
– North American parents emphasize innate
ability; Asians emphasize hard work ■
– Teaching methods vary ■
– Studies may be measuring surface rather than
subtle variations ■
Children with Special Needs: Overview
– 13% of all U.S. children receive some kind of
special education ■
– See Table 9.4 for a list of disabilities for which
U.S. children receive special education services
■
– One of the growing categories of disabilities
include learning disabilities ■
Children with Special Needs: Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities: Disorder in which child has difculty
in mastering specifc academic skill, even
though she or he possesses normal intelligence and no
physical or sensory handicap.
Disability: Dyslexia-skills defcit specifc to reading and
may include difculty understanding sound and
structure of language
Teaching approaches:
•Reciprocal teaching – working in pairs or groups
•Inclusion: at least part of school day in regular
classroom
Children with Special Needs: Atention-Defcit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD: Neurobiological disorder characterized by
developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, inatention,
and, in some cases, hyperactivity
– Causes ■
– Cultural factors ■
– Treatment
Chapter 10: Social and
Personality
Development in
Middle Childhood
Theories of Social and Personality Development:
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud: challenge is to form emotional bonds with peers
and move beyond sole earlier formed bonds
Erikson: challenge is to develop a sense of competence
and willingness to work toward goal
– Industry versus Inferiority Stage
Theories of Social and Personality Development: Trait
Approach
The Big Five Personality Traits
– •Extraversion
– •Agreeableness
– •Conscientiousness
– •Neuroticism
– •Openness
Theories of Social and Personality Development: SocialCognitive Perspectives
Bandura and reciprocal determinism:
Three components
– Person component (traits) ■
– Behavior ■
– Environment ■
These three mutually influence one another!
1. Environmental Reinforcers (Emotional response
of others; social support) 
2. Personal/ Cognitive Factors(Beliefs; traits;
emotions) 
3. Behaviors(Responses to failure; imitation of
models) 
4. Environmental Reinforcers(return to the cycle)
Self-Concept: The Psychological Self
Psychological self: Person’s understanding of his or her
enduring psychological characteristics
– More complex ■
– Comparisons in self-descriptions ■
– Less tied to external features ■
Self-Concept: Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy: Individual’s belief in their capacity to
cause intended events
– Social comparisons ■
– Encouragement from valued sources ■
– Actual experiences ■
Self-Concept: The Valued Self
Nature of self-esteem
– Self-esteem
– Global evaluative component of self-worth
– Begins to develop by age 7
Self-Concept: Self-Esteem
Key components
–
–
Discrepancy between what desires and
perceived achievement ■
Perceived support from important people ■
Self-Concept: Origins of Self-Esteem
– Direct experience with success or failure ■
– Labels and judgments from others
– Value atached to some skill or quality afected
by peers’ and parents’ attude
Advances in Social Cognition: Self-Concept
The Child as Psychologist
– Focuses on internal traits and motivations of
others ■
– Beter understanding that same person plays
diferent roles in life ■
– Less emphasis on external appearance
Self-Concept: Moral Reasoning: Piaget
Moral reasoning: Judgments about rightness and
wrongness of specific actions
– Moral realism ■
– Moral relativism ■
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Family
Relationships
Parental Expectations
– Parents recognize children’s increasing abilities
to self-regulate ■
– Culture may play a role in the age of expected
behaviors ■
– Boys given more autonomy ■
– Girls held more accountable ■
– Parental authoritative style more ofen produces
socially competent children ■
Only Children and Siblings
Only children
– As well adjusted as children with siblings ■
Siblings
– Positively contribute to children’s social and
emotional understanding ■
The Social World of the School-Aged Child
Friendships
– Peer importance increases in middle childhood
■
– “Best Friend” emerges ■
– Friendships depend on reciprocal trust by age
10 ■
–
Friends help with problem solving and conflict
management
Gender Segregation
– Cultural influence ■
– Age of appearance ■
– Playmate preference ■
– Playmate style by gender ■
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Gender
Segregation
– Boundary violations ■
– Play group composition by gender ■
– Play focus ■
– Cooperative play ■
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Paterns of
Aggression
– •Physical aggression declines
– •Verbal aggregation continues to increase
– •Anger increasingly disguised
– •Aggression increasingly controlled
– •Gender diferences over time
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Paterns of
Aggression
– •Physical aggression declines
– •Verbal aggression continues to increase
– •Anger increasingly disguised
– •Aggression increasingly controlled
– •Gender diferences over time
o oGirls display more relational
aggression
o oBoth boys and girls increase retaliatory
aggression
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Social Status
Social status: Degree to which children are accepted by
peers
– Popular children
– oAtractive and physically lager
– oTake turns in conversation
– oExplain things
– oRegulate strong emotions
– oPerceptive and empathic
The Social World of the School-Aged Child: Two Types of
Rejected Children
How are these types of rejected children alike? How are
do they differ?
– oWithdrawn/ rejected children
– oAggressive/ rejected children
Neglected or rejected - Very diferent from peers, shy,
highly creative (The invisible child)
Influences Beyond Family and Peers Afer-School Care:
Pros and Cons
PROS/ADVANTAGES vs CONS/DISADVANTAGES
Influences Beyond Family and Peers: Poverty
– Childhood poverty rate ■
– Rate is higher for younger children ■
– Characteristics of parents in poverty
Influences Beyond Family and Peers: Poverty
Children in poverty
– More ofen ill ■
– Lower average IQ scores ■
– Perform poorly in school ■
– Exhibit more behavior problems ■
Influences beyond Family and Peers: Inner-City Poverty
Protective Factors for Resiliency
– High IQ of child
– Competent adult parenting
– Efective schools
– Secure initial atachments
– Strong community helping network
– Stable parental employment
– Strong sense of ethnic identity
Children of inner-city poverty may grow up
– Exposed to street gangs and street violence ■
– In over-crowded homes
– Subject to more abuse and drug use
– Witnessing or becoming victims of more violent
crimes
– Subject to PTSD
Prosocial behavior
Enhanced by quality programs that teach children
moral and social values ■
– Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood ■
– Sesame Street ■
Computers and the Internet
– Economic diferences ■
– Uses ■
– Gender diferences ■
Video Games
– Influences on child behavior ■
– Violent content and game preferences ■
Influences Beyond Family and Peers Policy Question:
Test-Based Reform
National Assessment of Educational Progress
NAEP: “The Nation’s Report Card”
– Assessment of educational improvement ■
– “Teaching to the test
– Student Efforts
Chapter 11: Physical
and Cognitive
Development in
Adolescence
Adolescence:
– •Transitional time between childhood and
adulthood
– •Tremendous physical and cognitive growth
– •Time of risk-taking and opportunity
Physical Changes: Other Body Systems: Growth Spurts
First growth spurt
– Cephalocaudal/ proximodistal paterns ■
– Joint development ■
– Gender diferences
Second growth spurt
– Muscle fibers ■
– Heart and lung ■
– Body fat levels ■
– Gender diferences ■
Physical Changes: The Brain
Two major growth spurts in teenage years
– 13-15 years: Largely related to parts of brain
that control spatial perceptions and motor
functions
– 15+ years: Changes in prefrontal cortex
responsible for executive processing
Physical Changes: The Skeletal System
– •Growth paterns
– •Joint development
– •Gender diferences
Physical Changes: The Muscular System
What do you know about...?
–
–
Growth paterns ■
Gender diferences ■
–
–
Physical Changes: The Heart and Lungs
What do you know about...?
– Growth paterns ■
– Gender diferences ■
Physical Changes: Milestones of Puberty
Puberty: Changes needed for reproductive maturity
– Endocrine glands ■
– Pituitary gland
Milestones of Puberty
1. Pituitary gland signals adrenal gland
2. Androgen produced  Pituitary hormones
stimulate growth of ovaries or testes
3. Testosterone and estradiol produced
4. Other growth hormones produced
5. Pituitary gland signals adrenal gland [It will be a
cycle]
Physical Changes: Endocrine and Reproductive Systems:
Overview
– Thyroid gland ■
– Adrenal androgen ■
– Gender diferences ■
Physical Changes: Sexual Development in Girls: Secular
Trend
Menarche: First menstruation
– Occurs 2 years afer beginning of other visible
signs ■
– Pregnancy can occur afer menarche ■
Lowering of the age of menarche by 4 months
per decade
Due mainly to changes in diet and lifestyle
Physical Changes: Sexual Development in Boys
Boys
– Sperm production begins between 12 and 14
– First ejaculation about age 13 or 14
– Genital development and pubic hair
development precedes the end of the growth
spurt.
– Development of beard and voice changes occur
near the end of the sequence
Physical Changes: Sexual Development in Girls
Girls
– Heredity and behavioral factors influence
hormonal secretions
– Major body changes before age 11 or 12;
consistently more negative body image
– Social context influences change
Physical Changes: Sexual Behavior: Overview
– Boys more sexually active than girls ■
– Reports of sexual intercourse varies across
ethnic groups ■
– Rate declined substantially over last three
decades ■
Physical Changes: Sexual Behavior: Early Sexuality Social
Factors
Social Factors
– •Poverty
– •Unsupervised by adults
– •More likely to use alcohol
– •More likely to be abused / neglected
Physical Changes: Endocrine and Reproductive Systems:
Sex Characteristics
Primary sex characteristics
– Growth of testes and penis ■
– Growth of ovaries, uterus, and vagina ■
Physical Changes: Prevalence of Sexual Behavior
Age of sexual activity initiation
1988 (15-19 yrs): 60% Males, 51% Females
2008 (15-19 yrs): 43% Males, 42% Females
Secondary sex characteristics
– Breast development ■
– Changing voice pitch ■
– Beard growth ■
– Body hair ■
Physical Changes: Sexual Behavior
Girls who are sexually active
– Early menarche ■
– Low interest in school and school activities ■
– Early dating ■
– History of sexual abuse ■
Physical Changes: Sexual Development in Girls: Secular
Trend
Secular trend: Timing of menarche
Physical Changes: Sexual Behavior: Moral Beliefs
Activities and moral beliefs influence lower sexual
activity among teens who:
–
–
–
–
Believe premarital sex is wrong ■
Atend religious services ■
Participate in school activities
Do not use alcohol
Physical Changes: Sexual Behavior and Education
– Despite school units, teens show ignorance of
STDs ■
– Fail to discuss condom use ■
– Abstinence and contraceptive education still
controversial in many schools ■
Adolescent Sexuality: Adolescent Pregnancy
– Higher in U.S. than many other industrialized
countries. ■
– Far more frequent among older adolescents. ■
– Relative frequency of teens who are unmarried
has increased but teen birth rates have dropped
overall.
Physical Changes: Adolescent Pregnancy
Ethnic differences in teens who marry
– African Americans ■
– Hispanic Americans ■
– Caucasian Americans ■
Factors in teenage pregnancy
– Onset age of sexual activity ■
– Poverty and family influence ■
– Less school success ■
– Less contraception use ■
Physical Changes: Adolescent Pregnancy: Children of
Teen Mothers
Negative Outcomes
– Achieve developmental milestones more slowly
when infants
– Grow up in poverty
Positive Possibilities
– Negative efects can be mitigated by support
from girl’s own parents ■
– Staying in school and social programs positively
help both child and mother ■
Physical Changes: Sexual Minority Youth
Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Adolescents
Realization
– Realization begins in middle school ■
– Few accept their homosexuality during
adolescence ■
Cause
–
–
Prenatal hormone paterns may be causal factor
in homosexuality ■
Twin studies suggest biological basis ■
Physical Changes: Transgendered Teens
– Transgender teen: Psychological gender difers
from their biological sex ■
– Higher rates of depression and suicide ■
– Cause is debated ■
Adolescent Health: Sensation Seeking
Sensation seeking: Desire to experience increased
levels of arousal (through risky behavior)
– Gain peer acceptance and autonomy from
parents ■
– Response to popular media’s messages ■
– Brain growth ■
Adolescent Health: Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco Use
– Teen use of drugs down but still a significant
problem. ■
– Alcohol use is prevalent. ■
– Sensation-seeking is related to increased use of
alcohol and drugs.
Adolescent Health: Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco
Tobacco Use
– Fewer teens are regular smokers than
generation ago. ■
– Teens who are more likely to smoke are
influenced by smoking peers. ■
Adolescent Health: Body Image and Eating Disorders
Eating disorder: Mental disorder in which eating
behavior goes beyond everyday experiences with trying
to lose weight
– Anorexia nervosa ■
– Bulimia
Adolescent Health: Depression and Suicide
Incidence
– Depression ■
– Suicide ■
– Incidence
and Suicide
Depression
Health:
Adolescent
Causes or contributing factors
– Depression ■
– Suicide ■
Consequences
– Depression ■
– Suicide
Changes in Thinking and Memory: Piaget’s Formal
Operational Thought
Formal Operational Stage: Reasoning logically about
abstract concepts
Key elements: Logic, Adolescent egocentrism,
systematic problem solving
–
–
–
Girls at risk for achievement losses in transition
to high school ■
Gender gap widest among most intellectually
talented students ■
Girls sufer in sciences not ofering hands-on
activities ■
Girls ofen discouraged from taking courses in
science ■
Changes in Thinking And Memory: Direct Tests of
Piaget’s Views on Formal Operations
Tasks
– Complex reasoning tasks ■
– Metaphors ■
– Decision-making ■
Education levels influence use of formal operational
thought
Schooling: Gender, Ethnicity, and Science and Math
Achievement
• Gender gap widens in math
• Ethnic variations exist
Changes in Thinking And Memory: Advances in
Information-Processing
Task improvement with age
– Metacognition ■
– Metamemory ■
– Strategy use increase ■
– Text learning ■
Schooling: Dropping Out of High School
• Links: Ethnicity, peer group, low value on
completion, history of academic failure
• Profiles: Quiet, disengaged, low-achieving, and
poorly adjusted students at high risk
• Consequences: Unemployment, lower wages,
depression, and increased criminal activity
–
Schooling: Transition to Secondary School [Is the goal
the goal?]
Middle school
– Task goals:■ Based on personal standards and
desire to become more competent
– Ability goals:■ Define success in competitive
terms
Schooling: Middle School: Ability Grouping
– Emphasis on ability grouping ■
– Students may change beliefs about individual
abilities ■
– •High achievers
– •Low achievers
Schooling: Middle School: School Climate
Perception of school climate
Successful intervention strategies
– Mentor ■
– Homeroom teacher ■
– Student teams ■
– Parental involvement ■
Schooling: High School Success
– Early days of high school set patern ■
– Activity participation helps develop
psychological atributes ■
Schooling: Gender, Ethnicity, and Science and Math
Achievement
Chapter 12: Social and
Personality
Development in
Adolescence
Theories of Social and Personality Development:
Psychoanalytic Perspectives: Freud
Genital Stage
• Primary developmental task: libido channeled
into healthy sexual relationship ■
• Psychosexual maturity achieved ■
Psychoanalytic Perspectives: Psychosocial Perspective:
Erickson
Identity versus Role Confusion Stage Primary
developmental task: Achievement of
personal identity
•
Reflects understanding of one’s unique traits
and how they manifest across ages and social
roles
Psychoanalytic Perspectives: Erickson: Identity versus
Role Confusion
• Sense of self becomes integrated ■
• Identification with peer groups ■
or
• Inability to have an integrated view of self ■
Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement: Overview
• •Identify statuses rooted in Erikson’s identity
process
• •Identity formation has two key parts
o oCrisis
o oCommitment
Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement: Identity
Statuses
Statuses:
• •Identity achievement
• Moratorium
• •Foreclosure
• •Identity Difusion
Four Identity Statuses
• •Four identity statuses proposed by Marcia
based on Erikson’s theory.
• •For fully achieved identity, young person must
have both examined value/goals and reached
firm commitment
•
Social self-concepts predict behavior ■
Mirror, Mirror on the Wall
As they grow older, children and adolescents define
themselves less and less by what they look like and
more and more by what they feel
Self-Concept: Social Self-Concept and Gender
Gender Differences
• Diferent manifestation by gender ■
• Girls influenced by internal and external
comparisons ■
• Boys influence more internal and self- defined ■
Self-Concept and Personality: Self-Esteem
Self-esteem: Sense of global self-worth
• Self-esteem paterns
• High self-esteem correlates
• Gender diferences throughout adolescence
Self-Concept: Gender Role Identity
Gender role: Gender-related aspects of psychological
self
• Adolescents continue to understand sex roles as
social conventions ■
• Gender role identity more flexible
Bem’s Gender Role Categories
Femininity
High
Low
Masculinity
High
Low
Androgynous Feminine
masculine
undifferentiated
Degree of Crisis
High
Low
High
Identity
achievement
status(crisis is
past)
Low
Foreclosure
status
Low
Moratorium
status (in midst
of
crisis)
Identity difusion
status
Self-Understanding
Components of self-understanding
• More abstract definition of psychological self ■
• Academic self-concepts from internal
comparisons and external comparisons ■
Self-Concept: Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity: Self-identification as member of specific
group and unique individual
Jean Phinney’s three stages of ethnic identity formation
• Unexamined ethnic identity ■
• Ethnic identity search ■
• Clear ethnic identity ■
Self-Concept: Bi-racial Teens
Characteristics
• Achieving identity may be more complex
• Range of factors interact with teen’s personality
• What are some of these factors?
Self-Concept: Immigrant Teens
• Possible clashes between parents’ cultural
values and the new culture ■
• Many such teens develop a bicultural identity ■
Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Reasoning
Pre-conventional reasoning: Judgments based on
positive or negative consequences to the child
• Protocol response to moral dilemmas ■
• 3 levels with 2 sub-stages eac
Moral Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Reasoning
Pre-conventional: Stage 1, Stage 2
Conventional: Stage 3, Stage 4
Post-conventional: Stage 5, Stage 6
Causes and Consequences of Moral Development
Causes
• Progression in age and corresponding cognitive
development ■
• Decline of egocentrism ■
• Improvement in role-taking ■
• Support from social environment
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory: Culture and Moral
Reasoning
• Narrow approach not universal ■
• Non-Western cultures do not fit well with
Kohlberg’s approach ■
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory: Moral Reasoning and
Emotions
Nancy Eisenberg
Empathy: Ability to identify with others’ emotions both
cause and consequence of moral development
• Inability to control emotional triggers (antisocial
behaviors) ■
• Age-related and individual diferences in ability
to regulate emotions ■
Carol Gilligan
Ethics based on caring for others and on maintaining
social relationships
• Two distinct orientations ■
• Gender diferences ■
• North American bias ■
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory: Moral Reasoning and
Behavior
1. Moral reasoning and moral behavior correlated
2. Neither adolescents nor adults reason same
way in every situation – situational factors may
determine actual behavior
3. Moral dilemmas featuring celebrities evoke less
moral reasoning among teens
Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior: Overview
Delinquency: Adolescent behavior that breaks laws
• Two sub-variations by age of delinquency onset
■
• Child onset is more serious and likely to present
into adulthood ■
• Adolescent onset is milder and more transitory;
peer group influenced ■
Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior:
Delinquency
Delinquents:
• Lack empathy (for parents, victims)
• Behind peers in moral reasoning ■
• Deficits in role-taking skills ■
Social Relationships: Parents
• ■Adolescents have two contradictory tasks:
establish autonomy and maintain relatedness
• Conflicts with parents increase but atachment
still high ■
• Individual traits and cultural factors afect
degree and meaning of parent–teen conflict ■
Relationships with Parents: Atachment
• Strong atachment to parents mater!
• Sense of well-being more strongly correlated
with quality of parent than peer atachment
• Strong atachments associated positive shortterm and long-term outcomes
Relationships with Peers: Overview
Friendships
• Increasingly intimate ■
• More stable than those of younger children ■
• Shared interests and activities important
Relationships with Peers: Friendships
Skills
• Considerable variation in interpersonal skills
needed to maintain friendships ■
• Ofen dependence on electronic communication
■
• Individual diferences ■
Relationships with Peers: Overview
Peer Groups
• Relatively stable ■
• Share values, behaviors, identity status ■
• Explicit peer pressure more likely directed
toward positive activities ■
Relationships with Peers Peer: Group Structure
Clique, Crowds, Reputation-based group
Relationships with Peers: Couple Formation
Adolescent Romantic Relationships
• 12-13 years have concepts of being “in love” ■
• Gender diferences ■
• Income diferences ■
• Age of puberty onset diferences ■
• Variations across cultures ■
Relationships with Peers: Romantic Relationships
Heterosexual Teen Relationships
• Relationships proceed at faster pace for girls
than boys ■
• Use skills gained in relating to other-sex peers in
friendships and mixed groups to prepare for
romantic relationships
Homosexual Teens
• Awareness of same-sex atraction around ages
11 or 12 ■
• May initially experiment with heterosexual
relationships ■
• Gender diferences ■
• Social support importan