Dyslexia
A Reference for Teachers and Parents
Neurological Origins
Dyslexia involves an over-reliance on the
phonetic pathway of the brain, located in the
frontal lobe. In contrast, a typical brain relies
both on the phonetic pathway and the visual
pathway, which is located in the occipital and
parietal lobes.
Risk Factors and Signs
Dyslexia tends to run in families.
Prevalence ranges from 5% to 20% of the
population
Signs to look for:

According to Overcoming Dyslexia, 2nd edition,
Dyslexia is defined as an unexpected difficulty in
reading for an individual who has the
intelligence to be a much better reader, most
commonly caused by a difficulty in phonological
processing, which affects the ability of an
individual to speak, read, write, and spell.
Dyslexia is a Specific Learning Disability that is
neurological in origin
It is characterized by poor decoding and spelling
abilities. Secondary consequences include
difficulties with comprehension, vocabulary
knowledge, and written expression.

Visual Pathway transforms the shape of the
whole word into the sounds and meaning
Phonetic Pathway pulls apart the word by
phonemes, linking the individual letters to
sounds, and those sounds into a word with
meaning.
This under-activation of the visual pathway
and over-activation of the phonetic pathway
results in slow, manual reading as opposed to
automatic reading.
Gabrieli JD. Dyslexia: a new synergy between education and cognitive neuroscience. Science. 2009 Jul 17;325(5938):280-3. doi: 10.1126/science.1171999. PMID: 19608907
Joseph, J., Noble, K., & Eden, G. (2001). The neurobiological basis of reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(6), 566-579.
Lane, Holly & Pullen, Paige & Eisele, Mary & Jordan, Luann. (2001). Preventing Reading Failure: Phonological Awareness Assessment and Instruction. Preventing School Failure. 46. 101-110. 10.1080/10459880209603354.
Lyon, G. Reid, Sally E. Shaywitz, and Bennett A. Shaywitz. "A definition of dyslexia." Annals of dyslexia 53.1 (2003): 1-14.
Mather, N., White, J., & Youman, M. (2020). Dyslexia around the world: A snapshot. Learning Disabilities, 25(1), 1-17.
Miller, D. C., & Maricle, D. E. (2019). Essentials of school neuropsychological assessment. John Wiley & Sons.
Raschle, N. M., Chang, M., & Gaab, N. (2011). Structural brain alterations associated with dyslexia predate reading onset. Neuroimage, 57(3), 742-749.
Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, J. (2008). Overcoming Dyslexia (2020 Edition): Completely Revised and Updated.
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Difficulty with phonics skills
o Rhyming
o Segmenting
o Blending
Difficulties with accurate and/or fluent
word reading (recognizing words
individually)
Poor spelling skills
Secondary consequences
o Difficulty performing activities
quickly and accurately (fluently)
such as reciting the times table
o Difficulty with word recall
o Reduced vocabulary and
background knowledge
o Difficulty comprehending what
has been read
Assessment
The key to identifying Dyslexia is the presence
of unexpectedness. Therefore, it must be
determined that the specific challenges are not
expected given the child’s other abilities.
1) Establish a reading problem according
to developmental level,
2) Gather evidence to support the
unexpectedness of this problem
3) Demonstrate evidence of an isolated
challenge in specific areas, particularly
phonological weaknesses
Legal Considerations
The legislation in A.R.S §15-704 is designed to
help identify students with characteristics of
dyslexia so interventions can be in place.

Responsibility of Arizona Schools

Screening:
1) Nonsense Word Reading
Reading a series of words that are not
real words, but are still decodable
(mep, flant, cruck)
2) Rapid Naming
Naming a series of colors, numbers,
letters, or shapes quickly and accurately
Structured, multi-sensory reading interventions
are essential. This instruction must contain the
following elements:
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Two screenings are recommended if Dyslexia is
suspected.
Interventions and Accommodations

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Each school must have a Dyslexia
Training Designee who has specified
training including: intervention,
screening, and legislation
Each school must conduct universal
screenings three times per year, and
those screenings must be approved by
the Arizona Department of Education
Parents must be informed of their
children’s reading progress at least
three times per year
Information about how to request
intervention must be publicly available
Each school must provide evidencebased interventions for students who
perform below benchmark expectations
on the approved screeners
Accommodations
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Gabrieli JD. Dyslexia: a new synergy between education and cognitive neuroscience. Science. 2009 Jul 17;325(5938):280-3. doi: 10.1126/science.1171999. PMID: 19608907
Joseph, J., Noble, K., & Eden, G. (2001). The neurobiological basis of reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(6), 566-579.
Lane, Holly & Pullen, Paige & Eisele, Mary & Jordan, Luann. (2001). Preventing Reading Failure: Phonological Awareness Assessment and Instruction. Preventing School Failure. 46. 101-110. 10.1080/10459880209603354.
Lyon, G. Reid, Sally E. Shaywitz, and Bennett A. Shaywitz. "A definition of dyslexia." Annals of dyslexia 53.1 (2003): 1-14.
Mather, N., White, J., & Youman, M. (2020). Dyslexia around the world: A snapshot. Learning Disabilities, 25(1), 1-17.
Miller, D. C., & Maricle, D. E. (2019). Essentials of school neuropsychological assessment. John Wiley & Sons.
Raschle, N. M., Chang, M., & Gaab, N. (2011). Structural brain alterations associated with dyslexia predate reading onset. Neuroimage, 57(3), 742-749.
Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, J. (2008). Overcoming Dyslexia (2020 Edition): Completely Revised and Updated.
Phonology
Sound-symbol association
Morphology (knowledge of word parts)
Syntax (processing text to gain
meaning)
Semantics (interpretation and meaning
of words)
Provide audiobooks, audio recordings,
or read aloud to students
Reduce workload (such as required
reading, spelling tests, and/or essays)
Break down assignments into smaller
and more manageable parts
Use graphic organizers
Grade for content, as opposed to
conventions
Provide a list of commonly misspelled
words
Provide a model alphabet for use when
writing
Provide cloze notes or a copy of teacher
notes
Provide additional time