Motivation
Chapter 8
Motivation
• Motive is something (a need/desire) that
causes a person to act.
• Motivation is an internal drive (the energy or
force) of an individual that will stimulate him
act or behave in a manner that will result in
some sort of reward, such as fulfillment of the
need/desire and fulfillment of one’s goals.
What are Rewards?
Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the individual.
There are two types f rewards:
Extrinsic rewards —valued outcomes given to someone by
another person.
Intrinsic rewards —valued outcomes that occur naturally as
a person works on a task.
Types of Motivation Theories
– Content theories
• Human needs and how people with different needs may
respond to different work situations.
• What motivate people
– Process theories
• How people give meaning to rewards and make decisions on
various work-related behaviors.
• How people are motivated
– Reinforcement theory
• How people’s behavior is influenced by environmental
consequences.
• How to strengthen a good behaviour and weaken a bad
behaviour
Content Theories of Motivation
• Hierarchy of needs theory
• ERG theory
• Two-factor theory
• Acquired needs theory
Two-Factor Theory
– Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
– Hygiene factors:
• Elements of the job context.
• Sources of job dissatisfaction.
– Satisfier factors:
• Elements of the job content.
• Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Acquired Need Theory/Three Needs
Theory
– Developed by David McClelland.
– People acquire needs through their life experiences.
– Needs that are acquired:
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Need for Power (nPower)
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• He proposed that individual’s needs are acquired over time
and are shaped by their own life experiences.
• He also added that irrespective of age, gender or culture,
we all have these three motivating drivers.
• one amongst them will be the dominant motivating factor
which will be decided on the basis of the experiences of the
individual.
Continued…
– Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
• Simply put they want success and are ready to take risk
for that.
– People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
• Involves individual responsibility for results.
• Involves achievable but challenging goals.
• Provides feedback on performance.
They are motivated by the accomplishment of the task and
promotion in the hierarchy of the organization. These kinds
of achievers want feedback on regular basis so that
evaluation of the work can be done.
Continued…
– Need for Power (nPower)
• This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to be incharge
of things and other peopel. There is a strong need to lead and for their
ideas to prevail.
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
• Involves control over other persons.
• Has an influence/ impact on people and events.
• Brings public recognition and attention
Two types of powers- Personal power versus institutional/social power.
A person's need for power can be one of two types - personal and
institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and
this need often is perceived as undesirable.
Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want
to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization.
Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more
effective than those with a high need for personal power.
Continued…
– Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with
other persons.
– People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
•
•
•
•
Involves interpersonal relationships.
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval.
They will tend to work in ways which will gain them acceptance
from others. They ignore arguments with other and prefer to
work in a group. They like being social in the organization and
have desire to feel loved and accepted. They do not prefer to
compete with each others in the organization rather they
collaborate so that they can work together and enjoy being the
part of the group.
Comparison of Content Theories of
Motivation
Process Theories of Motivation
How people make choices to work hard or not.
– Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences.
• Available rewards.
• Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:
– Equity theory.
– Expectancy theory.
– Goal-setting theory.
Equity Theory of Motivation
– Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
– When people believe that they have been treated
unfairly in comparison to others, they try to
eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived
sense of equity to the situation.
Situations
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
– Developed by Victor Vroom.
– Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance.
• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance
will be followed by rewards.
• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other
work related outcomes.
Continued…
Continued…
– Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I),
and valence (V) are related to one another in a
multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
– If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be
low.
Managerial Implications
– To maximize expectancy, managers should:
• Select workers with ability.
• Train workers to use ability.
• Support work efforts.
• Clarify performance goals.
Goal-Setting Theory
– Developed by Edwin Locke.
– Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly
motivating.
– Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work.
• Clarify performance expectations.
• Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
Reinforcement Theory
 Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
– Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior.
– Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future
behavior.
– Operant conditioning:
• Developed by B.F. Skinner.
• Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
Operant Conditioning Strategies
– Positive reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of a pleasant consequence.
– Negative reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence. (improve the behaviour by taking away the
negative stimulus). If you work hard you will not be posted to a branch
located in a far flung area). If you are regular in the class you will not get a
tough paper.
– Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation
of an unpleasant consequence. (Give something negative)
– Extinction
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of
an pleasant consequence. (Start the meeting on time rather than waiting
for the employees. Teacher ignoring students mischief will decrease this
behaviour by not getting due attention )
Continued…
Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on …
– Law of contingent reinforcement —
• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited.
– Law of immediate reinforcement —
• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has.
Applying Reinforcement Strategies