Human Growth
and
Development
Chapter Seven
The First Two Years:
Psychosocial Development
PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College
Revised by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College
Theories About Early
Psychosocial Development
• Importance of parents and
their contribution to emotional
growth
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Connects biosocial and
psychosocial development
Freud: Oral and Anal Stages
• Oral Stage—1st stage, where infant
obtains pleasure through sucking and
biting
• Anal Stage—2nd stage, where anus
becomes main source of gratification,
i.e., bowel movements and the control
of them
Erikson: Trust and Autonomy
• 1st Stage—Trust vs. Mistrust
– basic needs need to be met with
consistency, continuity, and sameness
• 2nd Stage—Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt
– basic desire to gain self-rule over
their own actions and bodies and to
feel ashamed if it doesn’t happen
Behaviorism
• Infant’s emotions and personality are
molded as parents reinforce or
punish child’s spontaneous behavior
– social learning adds to personality
formation
– social referencing strengthens
learning by observation
Cognitive Theory
• Individual’s thoughts and values
determine perspective on the
world
• Working model—set of
assumptions used to organize
perceptions and experiences
Epigenetic Theory
• Each child is born with a genetic
predisposition to develop certain
traits that affect emotional
development
Temperament
• Temperament—“constitutionally based
individual differences in emotion, motor,
and attentional reactivity and selfregulation.”
– inhibited
– uninhibited
– epigenetic—though personality traits not
learned, environment affects their
expression
Research on Temperament:
Nine Characteristics
– activity level
– rhythmicity
– approachwithdrawal
– adaptability
– intensity of
reaction
– threshold of
responsiveness
– quality of mood
– distractibility
– attention span
Temperament and
Caregiving
• Inhibited vs. Uninhibited
– responsive care and encouragement
can help inhibited children become
less so
• Match between parent and child
– goodness of fit
Sociocultural Theory
• Emphasizes the many ways social
context can have impact on infantcaregiver relationship
• If social context changes, child can
change
Emotional Development
in Infancy
• In the first 2 years of emotional
development, infants progress
from simple reactions to complex
patterns of social awareness
The First Year
• Newborns’ first discernable emotions
– distress
– contentment
• Later emotions (after first weeks)
– anger
– fear, expressed clearly by stranger
wariness and separation anxiety
The Second Year
• Fear and anger typically decrease
• Laughing, crying: more discriminating
• New emotions appear
–
–
–
–
pride
shame
embarrassment
guilt
Self-Awareness
• Foundation for emotional growth
– realization of individual
distinctions
• At about 5 months begin
developing a sense of self apart
from mother
• 15-18 months the “Me-self”
– rouge experiment
Pride and Shame
• Self-awareness becomes linked with
self-concept early on
• Negative comments more likely to
lead to less pride or shame
• Own pride can be more compelling
than parental approval
The Development of
Social Bonds
• Social connections help us understand
human emotions
Synchrony
• Synchrony—coordinated interaction;
attunement
• Helps infants learn to express own feelings
• Imitation is pivotal
• Becomes more elaborate and more frequent
with time
• Learning through play
– playful interactions by both partners
– important for both to be responsive
Attachment
• Enduring emotional connection
– Proximity-seeking behaviors
– Contact-maintaining behaviors
Secure and Insecure
Attachment
• Bowlby and Ainsworth
• Secure—relationship of trust and
confidence that provides comfort,
assurance, and secure base
Secure and Insecure
Attachment, cont.
• Insecure—relationship that is
unpredictable or unstable
– avoidant: one person tries to avoid any
connection with another
– resistant/ambivalent: anxiety and
uncertainly keep one person clinging
to another
Measuring Attachment
• Strange Situation—lab procedure to
measure attachment; observed are
– exploration of the toys (caregiver
present)
– reaction to caregiver’s departure
– reaction to caregiver’s return
– disorganized behavior—neither secure
nor insecure attachment—marked by
inconsistent behavior of caregiver and
infant toward each other
Insecure Attachment as
a Warning Sign
• Stressed mother (although not always
an indicator)
• Mother too withdrawn
• Inconsistent behavior of mother
(conflicting messages sent by her)
• Insecure attachments repairable
Social Referencing
• Looking to others for cues
• Referencing Mom
– Look to mother for comfort
– Mother’s tone and expression can
become guide to how to react to
unfamiliar or ambiguous event
Referencing Dad
• Fathers play more than mothers
• Infants look to fathers for fun and
physical play
• Physically active play with fathers
may contribute to development of
social skills and emotional expression
• Physically active play with fathers
helps children master motor skills
and develop muscle control
Cultural Differences
• Fathers, single mothers,
grandparents, and cultures with other
family structures still provide needed
referencing
• Father’s involvement
– can benefit later development of child
– raise mother’s self-confidence
– and two parents working together are
better able to meet infant’s needs
than either alone
Infant Day Care
• Almost all infants cared for by
people other than parents part of
the time
• Specifics vary from culture to
culture
• The older the child and the more
money the family has, the more
likely possibility of day care
Infant Day-Care
•
•
•
•
Family day care
Center care
Day care generally beneficial
High-quality programs include
– adequate attention to each infant
– encouragement of sensorimotor
exploration and language development
– attention to health and safety
– well-trained professional caregivers
Infant Day Care, cont.
• Cognitive and biosocial development
are more advanced by day care than
at home
• Poor day care has detrimental
effects
Conclusions in Theory
and Practice
• No single theory stands out as best
interpretation of developments during
first 2 years
• Do not know the extent to which
positive influence can compensate for
negative one
Conclusions in Theory and
Practice, cont.
• Parental attentiveness crucial to
synchrony, attachment, and social
referencing.
• In dealing with children with problems,
need a practical rather than
theoretical approach that focuses on
their specific issues