1
Electric Vehicles
A. Asbury, C. Bruffey, R. Clinard, B. Bowles, L. Wu, W. Ju
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, USA
A.
1
Abstract—The recent proliferation of electric vehicles (EVs) has
been a cause for reflection and intensified research in the field.
EVs have a storied history just as long as gas-powered vehicles.
However, lack of innovation has caused electric vehicles to
endure long periods of disuse. New state-of-the-art designs have
had impacts on society and EV manufactures. These new designs
present new challenges to consumers wishing to use an electric
vehicles and utilities wishing to alleviate this stress on the grid.
With the large-scale integration of EVs, benefits to the frequency
regulation of the power grid and improvements to the distributed
spinning reserve of the power grid will be observed.
Index Terms—Electric vehicle, Environmental impacts, V2G,
Battery Technology, Frequency Regulation
E
I. BASIC THEORY
LECTRIC vehicles use a battery to store energy, though
some designs use fuel cells or have auxiliary engines.
These supplemental energy sources can be utilized to charge
the battery when additional range is needed by the driver. This
scheme is often referred to as a hybrid electric vehicle. The
stored energy is passed through sophisticated power
electronics to a motor. These motors can be either DC or 3phase AC; each configuration has its advantages. DC motors
have an overdrive feature, allowing them to be driven at a
higher than rated power for short periods. While AC motors
lack the overdrive feature, they can incorporate a regeneration
mode. In regeneration mode, the motor may convert its
rotational energy into electricity to be stored in the battery [2].
Electric vehicles have evolved from simple machines of the
19th century into complex, computer-controlled supercars.
II. HISTORY
A. Early Innovations
English inventor Thomas Parker invented one of the first
practical EVs in 1884. Early electric vehicles were relatively
successful in the market. According to one survey at the
beginning of the 20th century, 40 percent of American
automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent by electricity,
and 22 percent by gasoline [3]. Each of these nascent
technologies had major flaws. The steam-powered cars were
hindered by a long startup period, reaching up to 45 minutes
on cold mornings. Gas powered cars were loud, dirty, and had
to be started with a hand crank. Therefore, even though the
electric vehicles were limited to about an 80-mile range and a
maximum speed of 20 mph, they still made viable city cars
[3].
By the turn of the century, some companies were using EVs
to provide taxi service. These services introduced the idea of
electric vehicles to the wider public. These early electric
vehicles were more expensive than gas-powered cars at the
time and were mainly targeted at upper class, urban
households.
Ironically, the invention of the electric starter and muffler
for gas vehicles would sound the death knell for these early
electric vehicles. Though during times of hardship and
rationing, such as World War II, some countries made limited
use of electric vehicles. Overall EVs fell almost entirely out of
use except in some very niche roles, such as local milk
delivery trucks [3].
B. Intervening Years
It was not until the energy crises of the 1970s that EVs once
again began to see earnest attention. The Sebring-Vanguard
Citicar was introduced in 1794; it would hold the record of
most units sold by a North American manufacturer until 2012
and the Tesla Model S. However as public memory of the
energy crisis faded, so did development of electric vehicles
[3].
C. Recent History
It would not be until the 1990s, and the actions of the
California Air Resources Board (CARB), that EVs would see
mainstream support and success. The board mandated a shift
towards zero emission vehicles, which prompted large auto
companies to create limited numbers electric vehicles.
Eventually, CARB’s mandate was rescinded; however, EVs
retained some momentum and took on something of a cult
status. From the 1990s through today, electric vehicles have
seen an extended period of continuing interest and
development. Unlike previous eras of the electric car, major
manufacturers of traditional, gas-powered cars have invested
heavily in the new electric car market [3]. They share this
space with many new startup companies looking to make an
impact in a rapidly developing market.
III. STATE OF THE ART DESIGNS
As we can see, electric automobiles are not a new
technology. Some of the first vehicles were, in fact, powered
by electricity. Despite the almost complete disappearance of
electric vehicles from consumer markets for the better part of
a century, there has been a resurgence of interest in electric
vehicles that has spawned new advancements in electric
vehicle design.
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A. Detroit Electric’s SP.01
While there are many electric vehicles currently on the
market, the newest and most advanced designs tend to be
higher priced sports cars. Although these vehicles are cost
prohibitive for the majority of consumers, they showcase the
potential that electric vehicles have as the technology matures.
Detroit Electric, a modern company named after an electric
vehicle pioneer, has announced a limited production run of the
SP.01 roadster. The vehicle has an aluminum chassis and
carbon fiber body to reduce weight. Powered by a 150 KW
electric motor, this two-seat all-electric vehicle boasts a 0-60
mph time of 3.7 seconds and a top speed of 155 mph. The
most innovative feature is the 37 KWh lithium-ion polymer
battery pack.
In an effort to maximize performance, the battery backs are
climate controlled by conditioned air and heat. Detroit
Electric will monitor the health of all SP.01 vehicles through a
telemetry link, giving the company real time information
about each battery and drivetrain. The battery is also equipped
with the “Powerback-360” option, which allows it to be
connected to the power grid or to be used as an emergency
source of power.
live and die by the opinions of the consumer. The importance
of customer satisfaction is growing even more important as we
progress through the age of instant communication that we see
in today’s society.
B. Tesla’s Model S P85 D
Not to be outdone by a newcomer to the performance
electric vehicle market, Tesla has announced the newest
version of their Model S sedan, the dual motor Model S P85
D. By using one motor for each axle, Tesla has produced an
all-wheel-drive electric vehicle that has a 0-60 mph time of 3.2
sec., on par with the some of the fastest combustion engine
vehicles ever made. It also boosted the vehicle’s top speed to
155 mph.
The most innovative feature of this vehicle has yet to be
realized at this point. Because the two motors give the
onboard computer better control of the vehicle, Tesla is
equipping every Model D with the ability to use an autopilot
feature to be installed later. The autopilot will make use of
sensors to avoid collisions, stay in its lane, and even change
lanes. Future plans include radar for snowy and foggy
conditions and 360-degree ultrasonic sonar.
Vehicle
Type
MPG or
MPC
Gas vehicle
eV (Tesla
P85)
eV (Nissan
Leaf)
C. Harley-Davidson’s Project LiveWire
Not all electric vehicles are cars, however. While the
majority of the innovations in electric vehicle technology are
designed for the car, some innovations are occurring in the
motorcycle market. Harley Davidson is touring the country to
gain feedback from riders about their new all-electric Project
LiveWire motorcycle. Harley Davidson, always known for
having distinctive sounding motors, designed the 74 HP, 3phase AC motor to have a unique sound, which has been
described as sounding like “a fighter jet taking off.” Harley
Davidson has announced that it will tour Project LiveWire
across the United States and Canada to determine interest
before deciding whether it will enter production.
IV. IMPACTS
When talking about the technical and social impacts of
electric vehicles we must be concerned with the impacts from
a consumer’s point of view. This is important since companies
A. Carbon Emissions
The technical impact that is of the most concern is the
emissions savings that a consumer would gain when switching
from a gas-powered vehicle to an electric vehicle. The chart
below shows the comparison of three vehicles: an example gas
vehicle rated at 25 mpg, a Tesla Model S P85 [5], and a
Nissan Leaf [6]. The chart shows the emissions per mile of
each vehicle (miles per metric tons of CO2) with the Nissan
Leaf being 61.1% more efficient, and the Tesla P85 being
60.7% more efficient than the gas model. Emissions savings
vary by your location as well [4]. Areas with a larger supply of
green energies (solar, wind, hydro, nuclear) will experience a
higher efficiency than those areas that are supplied by coal
fired power plants [7].
TABLE I
SUMMARY OF EVNIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
Metric tons of
CO2 per kWh
25
265
Metric tons
of CO2 per
gallon
8.887x10-3
-
6.89551x10-4
Miles per
metric tons
of CO2
2813.1
4521.3
75
-
6.89551x10-4
4531.9
B.
Battery Recycling
Another important technical impact would be that of battery
lifetime and disposal, as that would be an extra cost to the
consumer. The guaranteed battery life of both aforementioned
electric vehicle models is 8 years or 100,000 miles. Tesla
offers a battery exchange program that allows owners to
exchange their vehicles battery after 8 years [5], but Nissan
offers no such program [6]. Currently there are no major
battery recycling programs, as it is not currently economical
for companies to get into the market. However, it is estimated
that by 2035 there will be somewhere between 1.3 million and
6.7 million depleted EV batteries in the United States alone.
That will be sufficient to justify commercial recycling and reuse programs [8].
C. Cost Considerations
Perhaps the largest of concerns to consumers would be the
social impact of cost. The cost of buying an EV is
significantly higher its gas-powered counterparts, but this may
be offset some by potential reimbursements from federal,
state, and local governments and savings from fuel costs over
time. On average, Americans drive 13,676 miles per year or
1123 miles per month [9]. The chart below shows the cost
differential between the two vehicles, with an electric vehicle
saving the hypothetical consumer nearly $100 per month
compared to the gas vehicle. It is important to note that price
of gas is very volatile compared to the price of the kWh.
3
TABLE II
COST OF OPERATION FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Gas Vehicle
Electric Vehicle
25 mpg
-
$3.00 per gallon
$0.11 per kWh
$135 per month
$39.64 per
month
D.
Range Limitations on the Consumer
Another social impact that limits the electric vehicle is the
capacity of the battery and how that translates to traveling
outside of the daily commute. The Tesla Model S P85 has the
highest battery capacity at 85 kWh but that only allows for
265 miles, which means that a long road trip would require
stopping to charge the battery. There are charging stations
throughout the country and the number of those charging
stations is increasing steadily, so it is possible to charge the
battery and make those trips with proper planning [10]. Tesla
is currently implementing the Supercharger stations
throughout the country, which allows the driver to charge his
or her Tesla in 30 minutes [11]. This charge gives you about
170 miles, but will still have a dramatic effect on the drive
times on a long road trip.
It should be noted that as more of these charging stations
appear and electric vehicles enter the roadways, the strain on
the power grid will increase. This strain could prove to be
problematic if these chargers are not powered by a local
alternative fuel source (solar or wind).
V. CHALLENGES TO ELECTRIC VEHICLES
To underscore the potential impact of wide scale electric
vehicle adoption, multinational research and design initiatives
are underway between various world powers focusing on
improving efficiency, cost, safety and performance in EVs. In
the United States, President Barak Obama recently issued the
“EVs Everywhere Grand Challenge”. The goal of this
initiative is to enable US companies to produce electronic
vehicles that are as convenient and affordable for the average
American family as today’s gas powered vehicles by 2020
[12]. The President’s initiative focuses on working with
industry, universities, and national laboratories to set goals for
cutting costs in energy storage technology and powertrain
systems, increasing fast charge rates, reducing vehicle weight
without sacrificing safety, and developing the supporting
infrastructure.
A. Battery Technology
Energy storage technology is currently the central focus of
research and development efforts [13]. In order to make EVs
a viable alternative to gas powered vehicles, advancements in
energy and power density as well as affordability and safety
must be made. Battery aging is another area in electrochemical
storage technology that is receiving attention. Given that
factors in battery aging range from physical cell design to
driver habits, research and testing can be time consuming and
costly. This predicament makes multinational collaboration
very important. Currently, researchers at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory are in the midst of developing technologies that
provide higher energy and power densities without sacrificing
safety or performance. One such technology is the LithiumSulfur battery. Li-S batteries have extremely high energy
density, double that of the current Lithium-Ion technology.
Additionally, Li-S batteries would be cheaper and lighter.
This is due to the abundance and moderately low atomic
weight of the element. In fact, the density of a Lithium-Sulfur
battery is roughly that of water [14]. Interestingly, one of the
technologies greatest draws is also one of its major drawbacks:
the incredibly high energy density the battery provides also
requires additional safety features and precautions to prevent
rapid discharge, such as microcontrollers and other safety
circuitry as well as increased demands on enclosure design.
B. Drivetrain and Auxiliary Systems
While battery technology is the major focus, great strides
are being made regarding safety, cost, efficiency, and
performance in the areas of drivetrain and auxiliary systems,
and motors. Drivetrain research and development is focused
mainly on reducing friction and wear through advanced
lubricants as well as increasing range, efficiency, and
performance through the development of lightweight materials
that do not sacrifice safety. Auxiliary systems such as climate
control are being refined to reduce energy consumption for
passenger comfort via advanced insulation materials and more
ergonomically correct placement of vents. Motor research
focuses on reducing cost, weight, and volume while
maintaining or increasing performance, efficiency, and
reliability. Efficient thermal management is another challenge
to increasing efficiency and cost effectiveness. In order to
meet the 2022 cost targets, research must reduce motor cost by
50% [15]. One way this is being addressed is by reducing the
use of rare earth materials inside the rotor magnet. Not only
does this reduce cost, it helps to conserve some of earth’s
finite resources.
C. EV Power Electronics
Advancements in power electronic devices are also bringing
society closer to the goal of widespread EV adoption. In fact,
some of the most exciting developments have been in this
area. Currently, converters and inverters face issues with
subcomponents that lack sufficient tolerance to high
temperatures, premature component failure due to insulators
that inhibit heat transfer from electronic devices, and a
mismatch in how much power electronics and their supporting
structures change in response to temperature fluctuation [16].
These challenges, among others, are being address through
research in the following areas: advanced power electronics
subcomponents, insulating compounds, improved inverter
design, device packaging, and improved onboard charger
designs.
Advanced PE subcomponent research is
predominantly focused on wide band gap semiconductors.
These new semiconductors offer significant advances in
performance while reducing the cost of vehicle power
electronics [17]. Additionally this new design can withstand
higher temperatures, thus reducing thermal management
requirements.
Oak Ridge National Lab is currently
4
developing epoxy-molding compounds that conduct heat at
higher rates than current materials. The implementation of
these compounds could improve component longevity and
operating efficiency.
Researchers are also currently experimenting with new
inverter designs that utilize high temperature capacitors that
could reduce inverter cost and volume while improving heat
tolerance and efficiency.
Reengineered device packaging is currently being
researched with the potential to eliminate existing interface
layers and provide cooling at or very near the heat source,
providing some alleviation of the temperature reaction
mismatch between PE devices and their supports, as well as
efficiency and weight reduction benefits. On board charging
research is being conducted to potentially implement the
charging function into other existing PE devices and utilize the
inductance of the electric motor for recharging [17]. This is
engineering ingenuity at its finest.
D. EV Grid Integration
The final major area of research and development for the
future of electric vehicles is integration of EV technology to
the grid and creation of the supporting infrastructure. The
shift to wide scale adoption of EVs requires a shift to
accommodate them. Governments both local and national
must overcome significant challenges if the goal is to be
achieved.
These issues include increased transmission,
distribution, and generation requirements as well as
developing standards in EV charge equipment, management of
shared resources including coordinating and planning access
to charge stations, minimizing power spikes and managing
charging demands during peak load times. Impacts on
neighborhood distribution systems must be analyzed in order
to minimize transformer load and phase-to-phase imbalances
incurred by multiple EVs charging off the same transformer.
Additionally, the logistics of installation, billing,
management, and access to charging stations in dense
residential and commercial areas must be addressed. Many
local governments are working to facilitate EVs due to the
economic and environmental benefits as well as receiving
federal aid for spearheading this objective. Additional
research is also being done to implement micro-grids that rely
heavily on renewables instead of power from the grid at large
[18]. This technology will be invaluable in mitigating strain to
the United States’ already antiqued grid.
VI. SUCCESS STORIES
A. Tesla Motors
Currently, Tesla Motors [19] is the most successful example
of EV marketing; it is an American company, which designs,
manufactures, and sells electric cars and electric vehicle
powertrain components. Tesla gained widespread attention
following its production of the first fully electric sport car.
The CEO of Tesla Motor, Elon Musk, a talented
entrepreneur from Silicon Valley (SV), founded Tesla Motors
and several other well-known companies, such as: SolarCity,
Paypal, and SpaceX. The development of Tesla is closely
associated with the creative spirit of SV entrepreneurs. There
are primary three cornerstones for Tesla’s success: state-of-theart technologies, unique marketing strategy, and potent
government support plus sound after-sell service.
Tesla is the first company that focuses on pure electric
propulsion technologies. The state-of-the-art technologies are
its essence in order to survive in the vehicle market, such as
high energy-density battery packs, flexible power control, light
and hard carbon fiber body, etc. Some of the technologies,
battery pack and power control module are briefly introduced
as follows.
The design of battery pack [20] in Tesla’s EV is the result of
innovative systems engineering and 20 years of advances in
Lithium-ion battery technology. It has the most energy density
in the industry, which is constructed of 69 batteries connected
in parallel first, with 9 bricks connected in series, and finally 11
sheets connected in series. In total, the pack contains 6831
lithium-ion batteries for storage of 56kWh energy, being able
to be charged from any 120 volts or 240 volts outlet.
Tesla utilizes a power electronic module for flexible control
of the DC and AC power exchange in its EV. It functions as a
bridge between the charge port, battery and the motor. When
charging, it converts AC from the wall into DC for energy
storage in the battery; when driving, it converts DC in the
battery into AC for motor to generate torque.
Electric vehicle application is a high-cost business due to its
high technologies, so it is difficult for the companies to gain
useful profits and develop their business in the market while
competing with relatively cheap gas-engine vehicles. However,
Tesla survives by virtue of a unique marketing strategy. At the
beginning, it targeted to the open market by selling sport cars
to high-end customers. Because only these people can afford
their vehicles, they utilize these substantial profits to open the
EV market to normal customers. After a period of financial
revenue collection, it gradually explores more markets of the
middle-class customers.
As a renewable and clean energy application company, Tesla
obtains potent government support, such as tax deductions, low
bank loan interest rates, etc. Furthermore, it provides sound
after-sell service to deal with typical technical problems, like
free batteries maintenance in the first 8 years, flexible products
exchange policy, etc. These policies and services can
effectively stimulate customers to own Tesla’s electric
vehicles.
A common concern for EVs is the capability of extending
range, because the battery always needs to be charged, and it is
not as convenient as conventional cars, which can be easily
filled with fuel at a gas station. Recently Tesla released a
supercharger network program to resolve this concern,
cooperating with Solar City, another company Elon Musk
owns for exploring solar power application. The program’s
target is to build over 200 supercharger stations all over North
America. By the end of 2015, it will cover over 98% of the U.S
and Canada. Charging for 20 minutes, the batteries can then
support a 150-mile drive, with 10 minutes more charge adding
an additional 50 miles range. Tesla’s customers would easily
5
obtain battery charging and drive any additional range in North
America.
B. GM’s Chevrolet Volt
For the same concern, there is another solution implemented
by General Motor on their successful EV application:
Chevrolet Volt [21]. It is the top selling plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle in the USA. The Volt is named as a hybrid EV due to
the creative design of its powertrain [22], a combination of an
internal combustion engine and an electric motor along with a
battery, which can be charged by connecting a plug to any
external electric power source, normally just wall outlet. It can
operate as a pure electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles.
When the battery energy drops down to a pre-determined
threshold, the gas engine will start to work and provide
additional range. With this system, customers do not have to
worry about running out of battery energy. No matter
electricity or gas, they can obtain the energy conveniently.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the frequency regulation based on EV
VII. RELATED RESEARCH LITERATURE ON ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system can provide active power
support and frequency regulation services to mitigate the
intermittence of renewable energy sources (RES), and balance
the loads in the power grid.
To perform the frequency regulation, we need a large
deployment of EVs. Meanwhile, in order to manage a large
number of EVs, it must have some extra equipment including
[23]: a smart interface with the grid, communication with the
grid operator and metering the exchange of information power
flows of the grid. These requirements bring more challenges to
power grid in the process of frequency regulation, such as the
coordination between the RES and the EVs, battery charging
strategies in different system operation, the technical and
economic challenge of adaptive control algorithms in
frequency regulation.
In frequency regulation, there are three layers of control:
primary, secondary, and tertiary frequency regulation [24].
EVs can simulate the generator droop characteristic to perform
primary frequency regulation, and achieve secondary
frequency regulation based on area control error (ACE).
Tertiary frequency modulation can be achieved based on
economic dispatch.
A. Primal Frequency Regulation
In micro grids, a power disturbance would result in a
significant oscillation of frequency due to lack of enough
generation resources and spinning reserves. EVs connected to
the grid can inject power into the grid, which not only benefits
to the frequency stability, but also increases robustness of
operation, especially in isolation system. EVs can be
considered as new resources in primary frequency control
owing to their fast response to disturbances [25]. These studies
make the V2G more noticeable than ever in primary frequency
control. In primary frequency control, there are two loops: the
droop control that reduces the traditional generators, which
can cut the fossils consumption, the inertial control that
simulates the behavior of conventional generator.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of primary frequency regulation
Those control schemes autonomously respond to frequency
deviation. Compared the EV as a regular and controllable load
in primary control the effects of EVs as controllable load in
primary frequency control and battery SOC could be
introduced. In figure 2, the balance point will change from a to
c when the system load increase without EV, however, the
balance point will change from a to b with reasonable
charging and discharging maneuvers. The frequency deviation
will decrease.
B. Secondary Frequency Regulation
As a centerpiece of secondary frequency control, AGC is
an important control technology for keeping frequency
stability. If EVs participate in dispatching load, AGC would
respond to frequency deviation both on generation and load
side simultaneously, to offset response characteristic
insufficiency of traditional generating unit. The feasible and
potential AGC operation with EVs was analyzed in [26]. A
methodology to make EV participation in AGC in bulk power
system was designed in [27]. These studies make EVs have
the ability to assist AGC.
At present, the studies of AGC with EV are still in initial
stages, and mainly focus on EV energy storage to reduce the
cost of the battery [27-30]. Some scholar’s studies simulation
of AGC with EV energy storage. These results showed that
EVs can effectively reduce the ACE and tie-line flow
deviation and lower the frequency modulation capacity.
6
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of secondary frequency regulation
C. Tertiary Frequency Regulation
EVs participated in tertiary control based on economic
dispatch. The economic dispatch is an essential issue in smart
grid operation and management. In [31], it used stochastic
dynamic programming method to optimize EV charging and
frequency regulation decision. The economic dispatch model
was established in [32]. The results indicated that the EVs
plug-in grid could reduce the gap between demand and supply
in different periods of time with optimal dispatch schedule.
Figure 5. Power grid model for calculating frequency of Japanese system
In figure 5, it added EV1 pool and EV2 pool to the gridA, PHV1 pool to the grid-B, with the fluctuation of renewable
energy source, the frequency deviation are severe from the
figure 6(d) and (f).
D. Related Research Paper on Frequency Regulation [33]
Figure 6. Simulation results of V2G control and smart charging mode
(a) V2G power output of EV1. (b) V2G power output of EV2. (c) V2G power
output of PHV1. (d) Frequency deviation in grid-A. (e) Frequency deviation
in grid-B.
Figure 4. V2G control and smart charging with droop
against frequency deviation
In [33] wrote by Ota, it proposed V2G control scheme to
provide a distributed spinning reserve for the fluctuation of
renewable energy source and stabilize the system frequency.
Meanwhile, by considering the charging service to EV driver,
the paper proposed a smart charging control; this control has a
charging offset of half the maximum V2G power (Pmax) and
a half droop gain against the frequency deviation. It applied
this method to investigate a Japanese 50 HZ system.
When EV1 is plugged into the grid at 2 hours, it began to
charge with SC mode, and then it compensated the frequency
deviation with V2G control. Therefore, the root mean square
value of the frequency deviation of grid A changed from
0.0288 to 0.0176. Then it began to charge with V2G control,
the frequency deviation kept decreasing, from 0.0176 to
0.0169. Finally, EV1 began to charge with SC mode and
ended at 9.8 h.
In [33], the proposed V2G control is effective for a
distributed spinning reserve. In addition, the proposed smart
charging control satisfies the scheduled charging by the
7
vehicle user. The combined control scheme of the V2G and
smart charging contribute to reduce the frequency deviation of
power grid and compensate the fluctuation of the large-scale
integration of intermittent renewable energy sources.
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